Have a Great day: November 2022

Unit-1

Human Resource Management –Definition-Objectives-Functions-Evolution and growth of HRM-Qualities of good HR Manager-Changing roles of a HR Manager-Problems and challenges of HR Manger.

HRM Meaning and Definition

Meaning

In common parlance, human resources means the people. However, different management experts have defined human resources differently. For example, Michael J. Jucius has defined human resources as “a whole consisting of inter-related, inter-dependent and interacting physiological, psychological, sociological and ethical components”.

Sumantra Ghosal considers human resources as human capital. He classifies human capita into three categories-intellectual capitals, social capital and emotional capital. Intellectual capital consists of specialized knowledge, tacit knowledge and skills, cognitive complexity, and learning capacity.

Social capital is made up of network of relationships, sociability, and trustworthiness Emotional capital consists of self-confidence, ambition and courage, risk-bearing ability, and resilience. Now it is clear from above definitions that human resources refer to the qualitative and quantitative aspects of employees working in an organisation.

Definition

According to Flippo “Personnel management, or say, human resource management is the planning, organising, directing and controlling of the procurement development compensation integration, intenance, and separation of human resources to the end that individual, organisational and social objectives are accomplished”.

According to Decenzo and Robbins “HRM is concerned with the people dimension in management. Since every organisation is made up of people, acquiring their services, developing their skills, motivating them to higher levels of performance and ensuring that they continue to maintain their commitment to the organisation are essential to achieving organisational objectives. This is true, regardless of the type of organisation-government, business, education, health, recreation, or social action”.

Objectives

1. To help the organisation to attain its goals effectively and efficiently by providing competent and motivated employees.

2. To utilize the available human resources effectively.

3. To increase to the fullest the employee’s job satisfaction and self-actualisation.

4. To develop and maintain the quality of work life (QWL) which makes employment in the organisation a desirable personal and social situation.

5. To help maintain ethical policies and behaviour inside and outside the organisation.

6. To establish and maintain cordial relations between employees and management.

7. To reconcile individual/group goals with organisational goals.

Werther and Davis have classified the objectives of HRM into four categories as shown in table

HRM Objectives and Functions

Scope of HRM

The scope of HRM is, indeed, very vast and wide. It includes all activities starting from manpower planning till employee leaves the organisation. Accordingly, the scope of HRM consists of acquisition, development, maintenance/retention, and control of human resources in the organisation

The National Institute of personnel Management, Calcutta has specified the scope of HRM as follows:

1. The Labour or Personnel Aspect:

This is concerned with manpower planning, recruitment, selection, placement, transfer, promotion, training and development, lay-off and retrenchment, remuneration, incentives, productivity, etc.

2. Welfare Aspect:

It deals with working conditions, and amenities such as canteen, creches, rest and lunch rooms, housing, transport, medical assistance, education, health and safety, recreation facilities, etc.

3. Industrial Relations Aspects:

This covers union-management relations, joint consultation, collective bargaining, grievance and disciplinary actions, settlement of disputes, etc.

Functions:

We have already defined HRM. The definition of HRM is based on what managers do. The functions performed by managers are common to all organizations. For the convenience of study, the function performed by the resource management can broadly be classified into two categories, viz.

(1) Managerial functions, and

(2) Operative functions (see fig. 1.2).

These are discussed in turn.

(1) Managerial Functions:

Planning:

Planning is a predetermined course of actions. It is a process of determining the organisational goals and formulation of policies and programmes for achieving them. Thus planning is future oriented concerned with clearly charting out the desired direction of business activities in future. Forecasting is one of the important elements in the planning process. Other functions of managers depend on planning function.

Organising:

Organising is a process by which the structure and allocation of jobs are determined. Thus organising involves giving each subordinate a specific task establishing departments, delegating authority to subordinates, establishing channels of authority and communication, coordinating the work of subordinates, and so on.

Staffing:

TOs is a process by which managers select, train, promote and retire their subordinates This involves deciding what type of people should be hired, recruiting prospective employees, selecting employees, setting performance standard, compensating employees, evaluating performance, counseling employees, training and developing employees.

Directing/Leading:

Directing is the process of activating group efforts to achieve the desired goals. It includes activities like getting subordinates to get the job done, maintaining morale motivating subordinates etc. for achieving the goals of the organisation.

Controlling:

It is the process of setting standards for performance, checking to see how actual performance compares with these set standards, and taking corrective actions as needed.

(2) Operative Functions:

The operative, also called, service functions are those which are relevant to specific department. These functions vary from department to department depending on the nature of the department Viewed from this standpoint, the operative functions of HRM relate to ensuring right people for right jobs at right times. These functions include procurement, development, compensation, and maintenance functions of HRM.

A brief description of these follows:

Procurement:

It involves procuring the right kind of people in appropriate number to be placed in the organisation. It consists of activities such as manpower planning, recruitment, selection placement and induction or orientation of new employees.

Development:

This function involves activities meant to improve the knowledge, skills aptitudes and values of employees so as to enable them to perform their jobs in a better manner in future. These functions may comprise training to employees, executive training to develop managers, organisation development to strike a better fit between organisational climate/culture and employees.

Compensation:

Compensation function involves determination of wages and salaries matching with contribution made by employees to organisational goals. In other words, this function ensures equitable and fair remuneration for employees in the organisation. It consists of activities such as job evaluation, wage and salary administration, bonus, incentives, etc.

Maintenance:

It is concerned with protecting and promoting employees while at work. For this purpose virus benefits such as housing, medical, educational, transport facilities, etc. are provided to the employees. Several social security measures such as provident fund, pension, gratuity, group insurance, etc. are also arranged.

It is important to note that the managerial and operative functions of HRM are performed in conjunction with each other in an organisation, be large or small organisations.

Evolution and Growth of HRM

In Western countries Human Resource Management (HRM) had its primitive beginning in 1930s. Not much thought was given on this subject in particular and no written records or document existed on this subject even as a philosophy in the Western ancient literature.

The philosophy of managing human being, as a concept was found developed in ancient literatures in general in Indian philosophy in particular.

In the ancient times, the labourers were looked down upon. It was considered menial to work for a livelihood. But gradually the factory system came into existence and later industrialisation followed by urbanisation.

This led to a greater emphasis on’ labour management’. Earlier it was known as ‘Personnel Management’, then ‘Human Resource Management’ and in recent times as ‘ Human Resource Development’.

In ‘Personnel Management’, the employees were treated as mere labourers who required constant supervision. The human element was not given due importance. Later Elton Mayo’s “Hawathorne Experiments’ gave rise to “Human Resource Management’. Here the ‘Human element’ was emphasized.

The workers were treated not merely as “cogs in the machine” but as human beings, as individuals and as a social being. In HRM, the main aim was to encourage and motivate the employees to identify their capabilities and use them efficiently

But the buzz word today is ‘Human Resource Development’. Unlike HRM, here the main objective is not just identifying an individual employee’s existing potentials but also those capabilities innate in him. HRD aims at bringing out the hidden potentials of an employee and help him develop as an individual.

The evolution of HRM in India can be shown briefly in the following Table.

Period	Development Status	Outlook	Emphasis	Status
1920s to1930s	Beginning	Pragmatism of Capitalists	Statutory Welfare Paternalism	Clerical
1940s to 1960s	Struggling for recognition	Technical Legalistic	Introduction of Techniques	Administrative
1970s	Achieving	Professional	Regulatory Conforming Imposition	Managerial
1980s	Sophistication Promising	Legalistic Impersonal	Standards on other function	Managerial
1990s		Philosophical	Human Values, Productivity through people	Executive

Role of HR Manager

1.PERSONNEL ROLE:- It includes Advisory role, manpower planning, Training and development of linemen, measurement and assessment of individual and group behaviour.

2.WELFARE ROLE:- Research in problem, managing services, group dynamics and to look after whether all the welfare facilities are adequately available for the employees..

3.Clerical Role:- Time keeping, wages and salary administration, maintenance of records, human engineering man-machine relationship.

4.Fire-fighting or legal role:- Grievance handling, settlement of disputes, handling disciplinary action, collective bargaining , joint consultation.

Other roles performed by HR Manager are

(i) The conscience role is that of humanitarian who reminds the management of its moral and ethical obligation to its employees.

(ii) Role of counselor.

(iii) Mediator.

(iv) Company representative or frequent spokesman

(v) Problem solver.

(vi) Change agent within the organization.

(vii) Helping line mangers to detect and solve the problem.

(viii) Other crucial roles.

Characteristics or quality of HR Manager:-

He must be specialist in organisational theory and effective advisor to management.
He must be expert in personal administration and relevant laws, rules, procedure and practice.
He should have multi-subject knowledge in philosophy, economics, ethics, logic, mathematics, sociology etc.,
He must give more importance to social justice.
He must have creative thinking for analyzing situations and reasoning objectively.
HE should know the problem solving techniques and have an ability to inspire motivate and direct employees.
Capacity for leadership, a sense of social responsibility and a sense for social justice.
Initiative and decision making ability.
Pleasing personality.
An ability to generate trust among his colleagues and develop acceptability recognition for himself and his ideas of communication with readiness and fluency

Role of HR Manager in Organisation

A readiness to co-operate the subordinates in times of difficulty and never to interfere or thrust his advice on theirs.

The main function of HR department is to oversee department functions and manage employees by planning, implementing, and evaluating human resources policies, principles, and programs. Basically, it involves functional activities including hiring qualified employees, establishing compensation structure, training staffs, addressing employee relations matters, and maintaining workplace safety.

Function Units:

· Recruitment

· Compensation and Benefits

· Employee Relations

· Training and Development

· Workforce Safety

An HR organizational chart exam

1. Recruitment:

Recruitment is a vital task for HR department because it determines what kind of people will work for the company – whether they have the right knowledge and skills, and whether they are suitable for the position or not. To accomplish this mission, they HR department need to develop and execute quality recruitment strategies to ensure that recruitment meets all affirmative action commitments.

2. Compensation and Benefits:

HR manager needs to establish strategic compensation plans, ensuring wages and reward programs are administrated equally throughout the workforce. They need to provide employees with benefit options, including health insurance, retirement planning, life insurance, etc. What’s more, they are responsible for authorizing salary changes, position changing an election.

3. Employee Relations

HR department is also responsible for investigating and solving employee complaints, conflicts and concerns. Many possible issues might arise in a company. For example, an employee is not satisfied with his performance assessment result and seeks for revision. If this kind of circumstance happens, the HR department needs to research on this issue, and solve the problem by negotiating with his superior.

4. Training and Development

Through effective training, employees could enhance their knowledge, skills and work abilities, so that they can improve their job performance. Human resource department conduct needs analysis to decide what training is necessary to improve performance and productivity.

5. Workforce Safety

HR department needs to ensure every staff working in a safe environment. It’s their obligation to research and develop safety policies for the company that is in compliance with state and federal laws and regulation. They need to identify unsafe conditions and make clear notice on potential dangerous matters such as dangerous equipment, chemical drugs, radioactive substances, etc.

Qualities of HR Manager

Let's discuss a few and vital qualities of an HR manager

Excellent Communicator

Good communication is the key to solving various issues. Since the HR manager is involved in framing policies, conducting interviews, recruitment, and training, he needs to have excellent communication as he is the face of the organization to the outside world. His communication should reflect a positive attitude and dignity.

Knowledge of Legal Affairs

An HR manager is involved in taking decisions for the organization’s workforce, he should be aware of the legal implications for the same. He should be able to analyze and forecast problems cropping up and should have the solutions for the same for which he should have the knowledge of the legal affairs.

Integrity

When hiring any employee, every organization assesses the integrity of the potential employee. Integrity is a top-most quality in a good HR manager as he is aware of the organization's confidential information such as the package paid to each employee, placement criteria, selection process, etc. This should not be used to his advantage in any way.

Trustworthy

He is the one whom an employee approaches with concerns or issues during his tenure. This is possible when the HR manager has created an environment of trust and reliability. This is achieved when there is honest and straightforward communication in the interactions made by the HR manager.

Being Fair and Just

You are like a principal of the school when you are on the office floor who has been given the charge of solving small conflicts to managing and dealing with bigger issues like sexual misconduct. You have the power to make the decision and fire an employee. You need to be fair and just, and take unbiased decisions as your one decision can change the fate of the employee in the organization or the industry.

Learn to Differentiate Between Personal and Professional Life

A good HR manager demands an understanding of the difference between personal and professional life. Being in HR, you are never out of issues or concerns. You are the mediator between the management and the employee, and it is not an easy task. You need to keep in mind the company’s policies as well as give a listening ear to the employee’s concerns which can be their issues too.

Leader

A HR manager should have leadership skills in order to be able to succeed in the arena. He should be able to lead but yet be a people’s person. He should be able to visualize the bigger picture, keep in mind the vision and mission of the organization, and act upon it most effectively.

Business Acumen

Just having good communication and knowledge of the policies of the organization is not enough. An HR manager should be able to understand the financial, accounting, marketing, and operational functions of the organization.

Delegator

Being the head of the department, he should be able to effectively delegate duties and responsibilities to the right team member at the right time for the right job. In this way, he will also help his team members grow professionally. Identifying the right candidate should be his forte.

Time Management and Self-Discipline

The HR manager should set an example for his team and other employees in the way he or she manages the day to day affairs and should be able to cater to sudden issues that come up in the office floor. Prioritizing his work should be his priority.

Changing Role of HR Manager

Today, human resource is more technology-reliant than it ever was and will continue to be so. Jacob Morgan, says, “Internal data is available on just about everything, from how employees are performing to how often they visit certain areas of the office.” HR representatives can use this data to make strategic decisions.

From overseeing payroll, attendance, and performance to conducting workforce analytics, and manual employee engagement to technology-driven engagement, human resources has changed in numerous.

Ways in which human resources changing.

Here are a few functions of human resources functions which have changed--

Recruitment and Hiring

Earlier talent sourcing and vetting solely relied on face-to-face interviews. But with various job portals, applicant tracking system with in-built candidate scoring and skill assessment tests, recruitment and hiring have taken a completely new turn. In turn, increasing the efficiency of HR teams, allowing time for other activities.

Employee Engagement

In the name of employee engagement, there were a few activities and routine one-to-one feedback sessions. Now there are transparent mediums for feedback, grievance redressal, employee happiness programs, and employee development programs to keep employees at their best and perform better.

Training and Development

Most employers lacked training and development programs. Now it is a special focus among employers to provide opportunities for employees to learn. And further, grow them in their skills.

Performance Management and Evaluations

Managers were earlier solely responsible for employee performance management. However, it turns out personal biases come in their way of judging performance. It is now HR responsibility to liaison with managers to conduct performance management and evaluations. In newer ways, technology has taken away that pain.

Problem and Challenges of HR Manager

1. Recruitment and Selection:

Finding a suitable candidate for the job from a large number of applicants is a basic problem for the human resource manager. They have to make suitable changes from time to time in the selection procedure and see to it that the candidate is up to the mark fulfilling the job requirements. If required, the candidate should be provided with training to get quality results.

2. Emotional and Physical Stability of Employees:

Providing with wages and salaries to employees is not sufficient in today’s world. The human resource manager should maintain proper emotional balance of employees. They should try to understand the attitude, requirements and feelings of employees, and motivate them whenever and wherever required.

3. Balance Between Management and Employees:

The human resource manager has a responsibility to balance the interest of management and employees. Profits, commitment, cooperation, loyalty, and sincerely are the factors expected by management, whereas better salaries and wages, safety and security, healthy working conditions, career development, and participative working are the factors expected by employees from management.

4. Training, Development and Compensation:

A planned execution of training programmes and managerial development programmes is required to be undertaken to sharpen and enhance the skills, and to develop knowledge of employees. Compensation in the form of salary, bonus, allowances, incentives and perquisites is to be paid according to the performance of people. A word or letter of appreciation is also to be given, if some of them have done their jobs beyond expectations to keep their morale up.

5. Performance Appraisal:

This activity should not be considered a routine process by the human resource manager. If employees are not getting proper feedback from them, it may affect their future work. A scientific appraisal technique according to changing needs should be applied and the quality of it should be checked from time to time.

6. Dealing with Trade Union:

Union members are to be handled skill fully as they are usually the people who oppose the company policies and procedures. Demands of the union and interests of the management should be matched properly.

Unit -2

Human resources Planning- Job analysis - Role analysis– Selection and Recruitment – Testing – Interview – Placement training – Promotion - Performance Appraisal – Job Evaluation and merit rating -Job Satisfaction and Morale (theories of motivation)

Human Resource Planning

Human Resource Planning is a systematic process of forecasting both the prospective demand for and supply of manpower, and employment of skills with the objectives of the organization. It can also be termed as the method of reviewing the manpower necessities to ensure that right kind of skills is made available to the organization.

The main purpose of HRP is to set the goals and objectives of the company. In other words, it is to have the precise number of employees, with their skills matching the requirements of the organization, so that the organization can move towards its goals. Chief objectives of Human Resource Planning are as follows:

§ Guarantee ample supply of resources, whenever there is a need for it.

§ Make sure that the current manpower in the company is being used properly.

§ To foresee the potential requirements of manpower at various skill levels.

§ Evaluate excess or scarcity of resources that are available at a given point of time.

§ Predict the impact of technological changes on the resources as well as on the kind of jobs they do.

§ Manage the resources that are already employed in the organization.

§ Ensure that there is a lead time available to pick and train any supplementary human resource.

Need for Human Resource Planning

The need of HRP may arise because of the following reasons:

1. In India, unemployment is a grave concern. Scarcity of manpower and that too with the required skill sets and competence, has given rise for need of Human Resource Planning.

2. It comes handy for smooth and continuous supply of workers when a huge number of employees is retiring, or leaving the company or maybe they are incapable of working due to psychological or physical ailments.

3. There is a need for Human Resource Planning when there is an increase in employee turnover, which is obvious. Some examples of this turnover are promotions, marriages, end of contract, etc.

4. Technological changes lead to a chain of changes in the organization, right from skill sets product methods and administration techniques. These changes lead to an overall change in the number of employees required and with entirely different skill set. It is here that the Human Resource Planning helps the organization deal with the necessary changes.

5. Human Resource Planning is required to meet the requirements of diversification and growth of a company.

6. There is a need for Human Resource Planning in downsizing the resources when there is a shortage of manpower. Similarly, in case of excess resources, it helps in redeploying them in other projects of the company.

Importance of Human Resource Planning

After the need for HRP, it is apt to discuss the importance of it. A few are mentioned below.

Definition: Job Specification

A job specification defines the knowledge, skills and abilities that are required to perform a job in an organization. Job specification covers aspects like education, work-experience, managerial experience etc which can help accomplish the goals related to the job. Job specification helps in the recruitment & selection process, evaluating the performance of employees and in their appraisal & promotion. Job specification, along with job description, is actually derived from job analysis. Collectively, job specification and job description help in giving a overview of the job in terms of its title, position, roles, responsibilities, education, experience, workplace etc.

Importance of Job Specification

The importance and purpose of job specification is a thoroughly understand the specific details of a job. Jobs can be of different types and can require a different skill sets to get the maximum output from a particular. Job specification gives important details related to the job like education & skills, prior work experience, managerial experience, personality traits etc which would help an employee accomplish the objectives of a job. For a recruiter, job specification lays down the guidelines basis of which the company can recruit and select the best possible candidate who would be best suited for the job. Apart from actually finding the right candidate or employee, job specification can be used for screening of resumes & shortlist only those candidates who are the closest fit to the job. Hence, a job specification gives specific details about a job and what kind of skill sets are required to complete the job.

Components of Job Specification

There are many parameters which are considered while giving the job specification for a certain profile.

1. Educational Qualification: This parameter gives an insight on how qualified a certain individual is. It covers their basic school education, graduation, masters degree, other certifications etc

2. Experience: Job specification clearly highlights the experience required in a particular domain for completing a specific job. It includes work experience which can be from a specific industry, position, duration or in a particular domain. Managerial experience in handling and managing a team can also be a job specification criteria required for a particular position

3. Skills & Knowledge: This is an important parameter in job specification especially with knowledge and skill based profiles. The higher the position in a company, the more niche the skills become and more is the knowledge required to perform the job.

4. Personality traits and characteristics: The way in which a person behaves in a particular situation, handles complex problems, generic behaviour etc are all covered in the characteristics of a job description. It also covers the emotional intelligence of a person i.e how strong or weak a person is emotionally

Advantages of Job Specification

There are several benefits of having a comprehensive job specification. Some advantages are listed below:

1. Job specification highlights all the specific details required to perform the job at its best

2. It gives the HR managers a threshold and a framework on the basis on which they can identify the best prospects

3. Helps in screening of resumes and saves time when there are multiple applications by choosing those who are closest to the job specification

4. HR managers can used job specification as a benchmark to evaluate employees and give them required trainings

5. It also helps companies during performance appraisal and promotions

Disadvantages of Job Specification

There are certain limitations of job specification. Some of the disadvantages are mentioned below:

1. It is a time consuming process as it has to be very thorough and complete

2. Job description is time bound and changes with changing technology and changing knowledge & skill requirements

3. It can only give a framework of emotional characteristics and personality traits but cannot specify the experience or forecast complex issues is any

Meaning and definition:

Recruitment is the generating of applications or applicants for specific positions to be filled up in the organisation. In other words, it is a process of searching for and obtaining applicants for jobs so that the right people in right number can be selected. Go through the following definitions of recruitment. These will help you understand the meaning of recruitment in a better manner.

According to Dale Yoder, “Recruitment is a process to discover the sources of manpower to meet the requirements of the staffing schedule and to employ effective measures for attracting that manpower in adequate numbers to facilitate effective selection of an efficient working force”.

In the words of Werther and Davis, “Recruitment is the process of finding and attracting capable applicants for employment. The process begins when new recruits are sought and ends when their applications are submitted. The result is a pool of applicants from which new employees are selected”.

Flippo has defined recruitment as “a process of searching for prospective employees and stimulating and encouraging them to apply for jobs in an organisation”.

According to Bergmann and Taylor “Recruitment is the process of locating, identifying, and attracting capable applicants”.

Factors affecting recruitment:

There are a number of factors that affect recruitment.

These are broadly classified into two categories:

1. Internal Factors

2. External Factors

These are discussed one by one.

1. Internal Factors:

The internal factors also called endogenous factors are the factors within the organisation that affect recruiting personnel in the organisation. Some of these are mentioned here.

a. Size of the Organisation:

The size of an organisation affects the recruitment process. Experience suggests that larger organisations find recruitment less problematic than organisations with smaller in size.

b. Recruiting Policy:

The recruiting policy of the organisation i.e., recruiting from internal sources (from own employees) and from external sources (from outside the organisation) also affects recruitment process. Generally, recruiting through internal sourcing is preferred, because own employees know the organisation and they can well fit into the organisation’s culture.

c. Image of Organisation:

Image of organisation is another internal factor having its influence on the recruitment process of the organisation. Good image of the organisation earned by a number of overt and covert actions by management helps attract potential and competent candidates. Managerial actions like good public relations, rendering public services like building roads, public parks, hospitals and schools help earn image or goodwill for the organisation. That is why blue chip companies attract large number of applications.

d. Image of Job:

Just as image of organisation affects recruitment so does the image of a job also. Better remuneration and working conditions are considered the characteristics of good image of a job. Besides, promotion and career development policies of organisation also attract potential candidates.

2. External Factors:

Like internal factors, there are some factors external to organisation which has their influence on recruitment process.

Some of these are given below:

a. Demographic Factors:

As demographic factors are intimately related to human beings, i.e., employees, these have profound influence on recruitment process. Demographic factors include sex, age, literacy, economic status etc.

b. Labour Market:

Labour market conditions i.e., supply and demand of labour is of particular importance in affecting recruitment process. For example, if the demand for a specific skill is high relative to its supply, recruiting employees will involve more efforts. On the contrary, if supply is more than demand for a particular skill, recruitment will be relatively easier.

In this context, the observation made by 11PM in regard to labour market in India is worth citing: “The most striking feature in the Indian Labour market is the apparent abundance of labour – yet the ‘right type’ of labour is not too easy to find”.

c. Unemployment Situation:

The rate unemployment is yet another external factor having its influence on the recruitment process. When the unemployment rate in a given area is high, the recruitment process tends to be simpler. The reason is not difficult to seek. The number of applicants is expectedly very high which makes easier to attract the best qualified applicants. The reverse is also true. With a low rate of unemployment, recruiting process tends to become difficult.

d. Labour Laws:

There are several labour laws and regulations passed by the Central and State Governments that govern different types of employment. These cover working conditions, compensation, retirement benefits, and safety and health of employees in industrial undertakings.

Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, for example, prohibits employment of children in certain employments. Similarly, several other acts such as Employment Exchange (Compulsory Notification of Vacancies) Act, 1959, the Apprentices Act, 1961; die Factory Act, 1948 and the Mines Act, 1952 deal with recruitment.

e. Legal Considerations:

Another external factor is legal considerations with regard to employment. Reservation of jobs for the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, and other backward classes (OBCs) is the popular example of such legal consideration. The Supreme Court of India has given its verdict in favour of 50 per cent of jobs and seats. This is so in case of admissions in the educational institutions also.

Sources of Recruitment of Employees:

Internal and External Sources (with its Advantages and Disadvantages)!

The searching of suitable candidates and informing them about the openings in the enterprise is the most important aspect of recruitment process.

The candidates may be available inside or outside the organisation. Basically, there are two sources of recruitment i.e., internal and external sources.

(A) Internal Sources:

Best employees can be found within the organisation… When a vacancy arises in the organisation, it may be given to an employee who is already on the pay-roll. Internal sources include promotion, transfer and in certain cases demotion. When a higher post is given to a deserving employee, it motivates all other employees of the organisation to work hard. The employees can be informed of such a vacancy by internal advertisement.

Methods of Internal Sources:

The Internal Sources Are Given Below:

1. Transfers:

Transfer involves shifting of persons from present jobs to other similar jobs. These do not involve any change in rank, responsibility or prestige. The numbers of persons do not increase with transfers.

2. Promotions:

Promotions refer to shifting of persons to positions carrying better prestige, higher responsibilities and more pay. The higher positions falling vacant may be filled up from within the organisation. A promotion does not increase the number of persons in the organisation.

A person going to get a higher position will vacate his present position. Promotion will motivate employees to improve their performance so that they can also get promotion.

3. Present Employees:

The present employees of a concern are informed about likely vacant positions. The employees recommend their relations or persons intimately known to them. Management is relieved of looking out prospective candidates.

The persons recommended by the employees may be generally suitable for the jobs because they know the requirements of various positions. The existing employees take full responsibility of those recommended by them and also ensure of their proper behaviour and performance.

Advantages of Internal Sources:

The Following are The Advantages of Internal Sources:

1. Improves morale:

When an employee from inside the organisation is given the higher post, it helps in increasing the morale of all employees. Generally every employee expects promotion to a higher post carrying more status and pay (if he fulfills the other requirements).

2. No Error in Selection:

When an employee is selected from inside, there is a least possibility of errors in selection since every company maintains complete record of its employees and can judge them in a better manner.

3. Promotes Loyalty:

It promotes loyalty among the employees as they feel secured on account of chances of advancement.

4. No Hasty Decision:

The chances of hasty decisions are completely eliminated as the existing employees are well tried and can be relied upon.

5. Economy in Training Costs:

The existing employees are fully aware of the operating procedures and policies of the organisation. The existing employees require little training and it brings economy in training costs.

6. Self-Development:

It encourages self-development among the employees as they can look forward to occupy higher posts.

Disadvantages of Internal Sources:

(i) It discourages capable persons from outside to join the concern.

(ii) It is possible that the requisite number of persons possessing qualifications for the vacant posts may not be available in the organisation.

(iii) For posts requiring innovations and creative thinking, this method of recruitment cannot be followed.

(iv) If only seniority is the criterion for promotion, then the person filling the vacant post may not be really capable.

Inspite of the disadvantages, it is frequently used as a source of recruitment for lower positions. It may lead to nepotism and favouritism. The employees may be employed on the basis of their recommendation and not suitability.

(B) External Sources:

All organisations have to use external sources for recruitment to higher positions when existing employees are not suitable. More persons are needed when expansions are undertaken.

The external sources are discussed below:

Methods of External Sources:

1. Advertisement:

It is a method of recruitment frequently used for skilled workers, clerical and higher staff. Advertisement can be given in newspapers and professional journals. These advertisements attract applicants in large number of highly variable quality.

Preparing good advertisement is a specialised task. If a company wants to conceal its name, a ‘blind advertisement’ may be given asking the applicants to apply to Post Bag or Box Number or to some advertising agency.

2. Employment Exchanges:

Employment exchanges in India are run by the Government. For unskilled, semi-skilled, skilled, clerical posts etc., it is often used as a source of recruitment. In certain cases it has been made obligatory for the business concerns to notify their vacancies to the employment exchange. In the past, employers used to turn to these agencies only as a last resort. The job-seekers and job-givers are brought into contact by the employment exchanges.

3. Schools, Colleges and Universities:

Direct recruitment from educational institutions for certain jobs (i.e. placement) which require technical or professional qualification has become a common practice. A close liaison between the company and educational institutions helps in getting suitable candidates. The students are spotted during the course of their studies. Junior level executives or managerial trainees may be recruited in this way.

4. Recommendation of Existing Employees:

The present employees know both the company and the candidate being recommended. Hence some companies encourage their existing employees to assist them in getting applications from persons who are known to them.

In certain cases rewards may also be given if candidates recommended by them are actually selected by the company. If recommendation leads to favouritism, it will impair the morale of employees.

5. Factory Gates:

Certain workers present themselves at the factory gate every day for employment. This method of recruitment is very popular in India for unskilled or semi-skilled labour. The desirable candidates are selected by the first line supervisors. The major disadvantage of this system is that the person selected may not be suitable for the vacancy.

6. Casual Callers:

Those personnel who casually come to the company for employment may also be considered for the vacant post. It is most economical method of recruitment. In the advanced countries, this method of recruitment is very popular.

7. Central Application File:

A file of past applicants who were not selected earlier may be maintained. In order to keep the file alive, applications in the files must be checked at periodical intervals.

8. Labour Unions:

In certain occupations like construction, hotels, maritime industry etc., (i.e., industries where there is instability of employment) all recruits usually come from unions. It is advantageous from the management point of view because it saves expenses of recruitment. However, in other industries, unions may be asked to recommend candidates either as a goodwill gesture or as a courtesy towards the union.

9. Labour Contractors:

This method of recruitment is still prevalent in India for hiring unskilled and semi-skilled workers in brick klin industry. The contractors keep themselves in touch with the labour and bring the workers at the places where they are required. They get commission for the number of persons supplied by them.

10. Former Employees:

In case employees have been laid off or have left the factory at their own, they may be taken back if they are interested in joining the concern (provided their record is good).

11. Other Sources:

Apart from these major sources of external recruitment, there are certain other sources which are exploited by companies from time to time. These include special lectures delivered by recruiter in different institutions, though apparently these lectures do not pertain to recruitment directly.

Then there are video films which are sent to various concerns and institutions so as to show the history and development of the company. These films present the story of company to various audiences, thus creating interest in them.

Various firms organise trade shows which attract many prospective employees. Many a time advertisements may be made for a special class of work force (say married ladies) who worked prior to their marriage.

These ladies can also prove to be very good source of work force. Similarly there is the labour market consisting of physically handicapped. Visits to other companies also help in finding new sources of recruitment.

Merits of External Sources:

1. Availability of Suitable Persons:

Internal sources, sometimes, may not be able to supply suitable persons from within. External sources do give a wide choice to the management. A large number of applicants may be willing to join the organisation. They will also be suitable as per the requirements of skill, training and education.

2. Brings New Ideas:

The selection of persons from outside sources will have the benefit of new ideas. The persons having experience in other concerns will be able to suggest new things and methods. This will keep the organisation in a competitive position.

3. Economical:

This method of recruitment can prove to be economical because new employees are already trained and experienced and do not require much training for the jobs.

Demerits of External Sources:

1. Demoralisation:

When new persons from outside join the organisation then present employees feel demoralised because these positions should have gone to them. There can be a heart burning among old employees. Some employees may even leave the enterprise and go for better avenues in other concerns.

2. Lack of Co-Operation:

The old staff may not co-operate with the new employees because they feel that their right has been snatched away by them. This problem will be acute especially when persons for higher positions are recruited from outside.

3. Expensive:

The process of recruiting from outside is very expensive. It starts with inserting costly advertisements in the media and then arranging written tests and conducting interviews. In spite of all this if suitable persons are not available, then the whole process will have to be repeated.

4. Problem of Maladjustment:

There may be a possibility that the new entrants have not been able to adjust in the new environment. They may not temperamentally adjust with the new persons. In such cases either the persons may leave themselves or management may have to replace them. These things have adverse effect on the working of the organisation.

Suitability of External Sources of Recruitment:

External Sources of Recruitment are Suitable for The Following Reasons:

(i) The required qualities such as will, skill, talent, knowledge etc., are available from external sources.

(ii) It can help in bringing new ideas, better techniques and improved methods to the organisation.

(iii) The selection of candidates will be without preconceived notions or reservations.

(iv) The cost of employees will be minimum because candidates selected in this method will be placed in the minimum pay scale.

(v) The entry of new persons with varied experience and talent will help in human resource mix.

(vi) The existing employees will also broaden their personality.

(vii) The entry of qualitative persons from outside will be in the long-run interest of the organisation.

Alternative to Recruitment

1. Behavioural based interviews

Unfortunately there are still too many employers today who run an unstructured interview where, as the name would suggest, the disjointed approach often results in an inexperienced interviewer losing focus (and control) during the interview.

You may have come across terms like behavioural based interviewing, targeted selection based interviewing, and competency based interviewing. Each of these techniques assesses a candidate’s past performance and focuses on results.

2. Group interviews

If you plan to have a colleague join you, or if you plan to interview more than one candidate at once, it’s also important to let your candidates know in advance. Interviews can be intimidating on the best of days, but to walk into a room and have to sit opposite more than one interviewer or someone else competing for the same role without any warning, can in fact derail even the best candidate.

Group interviews are a cost-efficient method of interviewing candidates while also providing an opportunity for your company to evaluate candidates on several dimensions: interpersonal skills, dress, attitude, and body language. You’ll also be able to evaluate such critical competencies as verbal communication skills, problem solving, and leadership potential. Top candidates may then be invited to continue the process with a one-on-one interview.

3. Video Interviews

Video interviewing is emerging as a cost-effective approach that saves time for both employers and candidates.

Traditionally, employers might have considered video interviews only for candidates in remote geographies. But innovative alternatives are emerging – including RecruitLoop’s recorded video interviews.

4. Employment Testing

Employment tests are an objective method of evaluating whether candidates possess the requisite skill set and knowledge to successfully perform in a given role.

Many research studies conducted over the past 20 years have indicated that the results of cognitively-based assessments (eg math proficiency or word usage) are highly accurate in predicting future performance in those jobs where these skills are critical for success.

5. Knowledge Testing

Knowledge testing is used to test a candidate’s knowledge with regard to specific skills needed to perform the job successfully.

In contrast to pre-employment testing, knowledge tests are most appropriate to use when a new employee will need to apply those skills immediately rather than being trained after hire. Licensing exams, such as that required to become a financial advisor, would be an example of a knowledge test. Knowledge tests may also be in the form of situational assessments in which candidates perform the job during a trial period that can last from a few hours to a full day.

Not all of these alternatives will be appropriate for every role. But employers should be aware of genuine alternatives to the standard interview process, to ensure they make the best hiring decisions.

Selection Meaning and Definition

Selection is the process of picking or choosing the right candidate, who is most suitable for a vacant job position in an organization. In others words, selection can also be explained as the process of interviewing the candidates and evaluating their qualities, which are required for a specific job and then choosing the suitable candidate for the position.

The selection of a right applicant for a vacant position will be an asset to the organization, which will be helping the organization in reaching its objectives.

Different authors define Selection in different ways. Here is a list of some of the definitions

· Employee selection is a process of putting a right applicant on a right job.

· Selection of an employee is a process of choosing the applicants, who have the qualifications to fill the vacant job in an organization.

· Selection is a process of identifying and hiring the applicants for filling the vacancies in an organization.

· Employee selection is a process of matching organization’s requirements with the skills and the qualifications of individuals.

A good selection process will ensure that the organization gets the right set of employees with the right attitude.

Importance of Selection

Reduce Applicant Numbers

Recruitment attracts many applicants to a particular job, which may prove difficult to manage, but selection reduces applicants to a manageable number. Candidates who have applied for a job during the recruitment stage are screened in the selection stage. Those who prove suitable for the job are selected, and unsuitable ones are rejected.

Assess Behavior

Selection gives managers an opportunity to assess potential employees' character and personality. This ensures that only an employee with the most suitable personalities and skills is given the job. The organization takes particular notice of the personal flexibility and adaptability of a candidate, which assures that such an individual can adjust rapidly to the tough demands of the job.

Low Employee Turnover

Appropriate selection procedures applied in the recruitment process ensure that only the most qualified individual is chosen to fill a vacancy. Recruited employees who are satisfied with their jobs lead to a low employee turnover rate. Employee retention is important to an organization, as the costs of hiring and training new employees are very high.

The Time Dimension

A good selection procedure saves time in the recruitment and orientation processes because the applicant is expected to have been introduced to some aspects of the organizational culture, such as the dress code. No time is wasted trying to inculcate the new recruit with various aspects of the organization's culture and norms. The employee is given an adequate picture of what the new job entails, thus eliminating wasting time doing unnecessary chores that are not part of his job description.

Advantages of Selection

A good selection process offers the following advantages−

· It is cost-effective and reduces a lot of time and effort.

· It helps avoid any biasing while recruiting the right candidate.

· It helps eliminate the candidates who are lacking in knowledge, ability, and proficiency.

· It provides a guideline to evaluate the candidates further through strict verification and reference-checking.

· It helps in comparing the different candidates in terms of their capabilities, knowledge, skills, experience, work attitude, etc.

A good selection process helps in selecting the best candidate for the requirement of a vacant position in an organization.

Selection Process and Steps

As we have discussed that Selection is very important for any organization for minimizing the losses and maximizing the profits. Hence the selection procedure should be perfect. A good selection process should comprise the following steps −

Selection Process

· Employment Interview − Employment interview is a process in which one-on-one session in conducted with the applicant to know a candidate better. It helps the interviewer to discover the inner qualities of the applicant and helps in taking a right decision.

· Checking References − Reference checking is a process of verifying the applicant’s qualifications and experiences with the references provided by him. These reference checks help the interviewer understand the conduct, the attitude, and the behavior of the candidate as an individual and also as a professional.

· Medical Examination − Medical examination is a process, in which the physical and the mental fitness of the applicants are checked to ensure that the candidates are capable of performing a job or not. This examination helps the organization in choosing the right candidates who are physically and mentally fit.

· Final Selection − The final selection is the final process which proves that the applicant has qualified in all the rounds of the selection process and will be issued an appointment letter.

A selection process with the above steps will help any organization in choosing and selecting the right candidates for the right job.

Types of Tests

Types of Tests:

The history of tests, as cited by Saiyadain, can be traced back to the efforts of Francies Galton who developed a variety of tests of sensory determination to measure person’s intellect as far back as 1883. Since then, there is no looking back with regard to the use of selection tests. As a result, a large number of general aptitude tests and specific skill tests for the purpose of selecting employees are available today.

For example, the Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata has developed selection tests for selecting management trainees and other officers for several organisations including Indian Airlines, Hindustan Steel Limited, Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd., Indian Telephone Industries, TELCO, BHEL, Bharat Aluminium Company Ltd., etc. Similarly, specific tests have also been developed for the selection of weavers and card punch operators.

All the tests so far developed for the selection of employees can broadly be divided into two categories:

(i) Ability Tests and

(ii) Personality Tests.

Tests covered under each category are shown in the Following chart 7.1

One reason for not reviewing these is such a review is the province of books on industrial psychology. Yet, for the convenience of the readers, a brief description of these follows:

Ability Tests:

Though a number of ability tests have been developed so far for the use of employee selection, important among these are the following:

1. Aptitude Tests:

Aptitude tests measure ability and skills of the testee. These tests measure and indicate how well a person would be able to perform after training and not what he/she has done^. Thus, aptitude tests are used to predict the future ability/performance of a person.

There are two objectives of the aptitude tests. One to advise youth or jobseekers regarding field of activities in which they are likely to succeed. This is called ‘vocational guidance’. Second, to select best persons for jobs where, they may succeed. This test is called ‘vocational selection’.

Specific aptitude tests have been designed to measure special abilities to perform a job. Examples of such tests are Mechanical Aptitude Test, Clerical Aptitude Test, Artistic Aptitude Test, Musical Aptitude Test, Management Aptitude Test, Differential Aptitude Test, etc.

2. Achievement Tests:

Achievement tests measure a person’s potential in a given area/job. In other words, these tests measure what a person can do based on skill or knowledge already acquired by him/her. Achievement tests are usually used for admission to specific courses in the academic institutions.

In these tests, grades in previous examinations are often used as indicators of achievement and potential for learning. Indian industries have now started conducting these tests to judge for themselves the level of proficiency attained rather than believing their scores in academic examinations. Achievement tests are also known by the names, proficiency tests, performance, occupational or trade tests.

Achievement tests resemble those of aptitude tests. However, the difference lies in the usage of results. The line of difference between achievement and aptitude is very thin in the sense of past achievement and performance. This difference between the two can be exemplified with an example.

When we ask a person, or say, a student to study the paper human resource management, then what he learns is ‘achievement’. But if we test the student to see if he would profit from certain training to the subject, it is ‘aptitude’.

3. Intelligence Tests:

Intelligence tests measure general ability for intellectual performance. The core concept underlying in intelligence test is mental age. It is presumed that with physical age, intelligence also grows. Exceptions to this may be there. So to say, if a five year old child does the test, for six years or above his/her mental age would be determined accordingly.

Mental age is generally indexed in terms of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) and calculated by using the following formula:

IQ = Mental Age/Actual Age × 100

It means that the intelligence quotient is a ratio of mental age to actual age multiplying by 100(to remove decimal).

IQ levels may vary because of culture and exposure. Saiyadain has qualitatively described various levels of IQs as below:

Intelligence testing in industry is based on the assumption that if the organisation can get bright, alert employees quick at learning, it can train them faster than those who are fewer well- endowed.

4. Judgment Tests:

These tests are designed to know the ability to apply knowledge in solving a problem.

Personality Tests:

Personality tests are also called personality inventories. These tests measure predispositions, motivations and lasting interests of the people.

Personality tests are subsumed under four broad categories as given below:

1. Interest Tests:

These tests are designed to discover a person’s area of interest, and to identify the kind of work that will satisfy him. Interest is a prerequisite to successfully perform some task. These tests owe their origin to the vocational efforts. The most widely used interest test is Kuder Reference Record. It consists of three forms.

The first form measures vocational interest such as mechanical, computational, artistic, literary, musical and clerical interest. Interests in personal areas such as group activities, avoiding conflicts etc., are measured by the second form of interest tests. The third form of interest test measures preference reactions to particular occupations like accountant, salesman, farmer, etc. The best known among these three forms of interest test is the Kuder Preference Record i.e. vocational test.

2. Personality Tests:

These tests are also known as ‘personality inventories’. These tests are designed to measure the dimensions of personality i.e., personality traits such as interpersonal competence, dominance- submission, extroversions-introversions, self-confidence, ability to lead and ambition. The most well known names of personality tests are the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), FIRO, and California Personality Inventory.

As reported by Morgan and King, the MMPI measures the following ten personality dimensions:

Under the MMPI, as many as 495 items need to be answered as ‘True’, ‘false’ and ‘Cannot Say’.

The following are the examples of some representative items:

(a) I am easily awakened by noise.

(b) I get all the support I should.

(d) I do not experience day-dream.

(e) My teachers made me obey elders even when they may advise wrong.

3. Projective tests:

These tests are based on pictures or incomplete items. The testee is asked to narrate or project his own interpretation on these. The way the testee responds reflects his /her own values, motives, attitude, apprehensions, personality, etc. These tests are called projective because they induce the testee to put himself/herself into the situation to project or narrate the test situation.

The most widely used tests of this type are the Rorschach Blot Test (RBT) and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). The RBT consists of an ink blot and the testee is asked to describe what he/she sees in it. In case of TAT which is considered as the most well-known structured projective test, the testee is shown pictures and, then, is asked to make-up a story based on the pictures.

4. Attitude Tests:

These tests are designed to know the testee’s tendencies towards favouring or otherwise to people, situations, actions, and a host of such other things. Attitudes are known from the responses of the testees / respondents because emotional overtones involved make it difficult to directly observe or measure attitude of the testee. Test of social desirability, authoritarianism, study of values, Machiavellianism and employees morale are the well-known examples of attitude tests.

Types of Interview

1. Behavioural Interview

The basic principle behind behavioural interviews is to assume about a candidate’s future behaviour and performance based on his or her past behaviour.

It is a face to face interview; questions are asked not using words such as ‘would’ or ‘should’ but as to ‘what you have done’.

For example, a question to a candidate interviewing for a manager’s job would be, “How did you solve a dispute in your former office?”

2. Case Interview

In this interview, the interviewer puts before the candidate a situation to solve, generally relating to business. The candidate is expected to understand the situation and probe deep into the topic by asking relevant questions and then gather a solution.

3. Competency Interview

This is where the candidate’s competency at a job-related skill is tested.

For example, a candidate interviewed for a secretary’s post may be asked to undertake a typing or a short-hand test.

4. Planned or Structured Interview

This is one of the most common interviews held all over the world. The same set of questions is asked of every candidate.

The questions are such that they test various skills of the candidate such as communication skills, team spirit, interpersonal skills and consensus-building.

The interviewer gives scores to each candidate depending on the answers and who gets the maximum score is the preferred candidate.

5. Situational interviews:

The interviewer puts before a hypothetical situation and the candidate is expected to explain as to how he will handle the situation.

For example, a candidate applying for a sales job can be asked to demonstrate selling an item wherein the interviewer may pose as a customer. The latter may even pretend to be a difficult team member and pose before the candidate a work situation.

6. Panel Interview

As the name suggests, a panel interview is conducted by a group of interviewers. This panel prepares a set of questions which are put forth to each applicant.

The panel members take turns in asking. The panel may also put forward some on the spot questions depending on the candidate’s response.

7. Telephone interviews:

Also referred to as the pre-screening interview, this is often the first step for further interview or interviews.

A telephone interview is best to know if the candidate is viable and also to know the qualifications, communications skills, experience etc of the candidate.

8. Unstructured interviews:

In an unstructured interview, there can be planned and unplanned questions and these can vary with the candidate.

Questions are asked to gauge the candidate’s understanding and capability. Some questions come up as per the candidate’s response.

9. One-to-one Interview

Also referred to as the traditional interview, there are only two people involved in this interview style, the candidate and the interviewer, who is mostly the HR manager or the department head.

Except for the panel interview, most of the above interviews can be a one-to-one interview.

10. Stress interviews:

This interview style was considered as a great option earlier to detect how a candidate responded to stressful situations but today, hiring processes have become more practical and sophisticated and stress interviews are rarely conducted nowadays.

While there are many components of a stress interview, a technique used by interviewers are to ask sudden and repeated questions and not giving enough time for the candidate to think or interrupting the candidate while he is responding.

11. Serial interviews:

In such an interview style, there are two or more interviews with the same candidate. The first interview will be the basic one to gauge if the candidate is the right one and then he will be passed on for a one-to-one interview or behavioural interview and then a task interview or a panel interview.

Generally, some firms like to conduct all the interviews in a single day while some might prefer different days for each.

12. Lunch Interview

One or more interviewers take the candidate to a lunch to test his or her social skills, manners and to find how they fit in. Lunch interviews are mostly the second interview and very rarely the first.

Placement and Induction Program

According to Pigors and Myers, “Placement may be defined as the determination of the job to which a selected candidate is to be assigned, and his assignment to the job.” It is matching of what the supervisor has reason to think he can do, with the job requirements (job demands); it is matching of what he imposes (in strain, working conditions) and what he offers in the form of payroll, with other promotional possibilities etc.

Importance of Placement:

It is important for both the organisation as well as staff that each employee should be placed on a suitable job. While doing so, the factor to be considered is not only the suitability of the job to the individual. But, initial placement is always a problem because there is little knowledge about the new employee.

Right placement of workers can have the following advantages:

1. Reduced labour turnover rate.

2. Reduced absenteeism rate.

3. Increased safety of workers and lower accidents.

4. Increased morale of workers.

5. Better human relations in the organisations.

Placement is not an easy process. It is very difficult to adjust for a new employee who is quite unknown to the job and the environment. For this reason, the employee is generally put on a probation period ranging from one year to two years.

Induction of Employees:

According to Edwin B.Flippo, “Induction is concerned with introducing or orienting a new employee to the organisation. It is the welcoming process to make the new employee feel at home and generate in him a feeling of belongingness to the organisation”. It is the first step in a proper communication policy which seeks to build a two-way channel of information between the management and employees.

Contents of Induction Programme:

Topics to be covered in induction –

1. Company’s history, mission, vision and philosophy.

2. Products and services of the company.

3. Company’s organisation structure.

4. Location of departments and employee services.

5. Employees activities like clubs, credit society.

6. Personnel policies and procedures.

7. Standing orders.

8. Rules and Regulations.

9. Terms and conditions of services.

10. Grievance procedures.

11. Safety measures.

12. Benefits and services for employees.

13. Training, promotions and transfer facility.

14. Career advancement schemes.

15. Counselling facility.

Promotion

Edwin B. Flippo, “A promotion involves a change from one job to another that is better in terms of status and responsibilities.”

Scott & Spriegal, “A promotion is the transfer of an employee to a job that pays more money or that enjoys some better status.”

The main purposes of promotion are:

(a) To recognize and reward the efficiency of an employee.

(b) To attract and retain the services of qualified and competent people.

(d) To motivate employees to higher productivity.

(e) To fill up higher vacancies from within the organisation.

(f) To impress upon those concerned that opportunities are available to them also in the organisation if they perform well.

(g) To build, loyalty, morale and sense of belongings in the employees.

Promotion may be classified into the following types:

1. Horizontal Promotion:

When an employee is shifted in the same category with increase in pay, responsibilities and change in designation, it is called horizontal promotion. For example Second Division Assistant is promoted as First Division Assistant. This type of promotion may take place within the same department or from one department to another or from one plant to another plant.

2. Vertical Promotion:

When an employee is shifted from a lower category to higher category with increase in pay, status and responsibility it is called vertical promotion. For example a sales Manager is promoted as General Manager in the company.

3. Dry Promotion:

When promotion is made without increase in salary or remuneration, it is called “dry promotion”. For example a college professor promoted as Head of the Department without increase in salary. In dry promotion there will be a change in designation and responsibility without corresponding change in remuneration.

Performance Apprisal

Meaning

Performance Appraisals is the assessment of individual’s performance in a systematic way. It is a developmental tool used for all round development of the employee and the organization. The performance is measured against such factors as job knowledge, quality and quantity of output, initiative, leadership abilities, supervision, dependability, co-operation, judgment, versatility and health. Assessment should be confined to past as well as potential performance also. The second definition is more focused on behaviors as a part of assessment because behaviors do affect job results.

Definition:1

“It is a systematic evaluation of an individual with respect to performance on the job and individual’s potential for development.”

Definition 2: Formal System, Reasons and Measures of future performance

“It is formal, structured system of measuring, evaluating job related behaviors and outcomes to discover reasons of performance and how to perform effectively in future so that employee, organization and society all benefits.”

Objectives or Use of Performance Appraisal

1. Promotions

2. Confirmations

3. Training and Development

4. Compensation reviews

5. Competency building

6. Improve communication

7. Evaluation of HR Programs

8. Feedback & Grievances

Advantages of Performance Appraisal

It is said that performance appraisal is an investment for the company which can be justified by following advantages:

Promotion: Performance Appraisal helps the supervisors to chalk out the promotion programmes for efficient employees. In this regards, inefficient workers can be dismissed or demoted in case.

Compensation: Performance Appraisal helps in chalking out compensation packages for employees. Merit rating is possible through performance appraisal. Performance Appraisal tries to give worth to a performance. Compensation packages which includes bonus, high salary rates, extra benefits, allowances and pre-requisites are dependent on performance appraisal. The criteria should be merit rather than seniority.

Employees Development: The systematic procedure of performance appraisal helps the supervisors to frame training policies and programmes. It helps to analyse strengths and weaknesses of employees so that new jobs can be designed for efficient employees. It also helps in framing future development programmes.

Selection Validation: Performance Appraisal helps the supervisors to understand the validity and importance of the selection procedure. The supervisors come to know the validity and thereby the strengths and weaknesses of selection procedure. Future changes in selection methods can be made in this regard.

Communication: For an organization, effective communication between employees and employers is very important. Through performance appraisal, communication can be sought for in the following ways:

• Through performance appraisal, the employers can understand and accept skills of subordinates.

• The subordinates can also understand and create a trust and confidence in superiors.

• It also helps in maintaining cordial and congenial labour management relationship.

• It develops the spirit of work and boosts the morale of employees.

• All the above factors ensure effective communication.

Motivation: Performance appraisal serves as a motivation tool. Through evaluating performance of employees, a person’s efficiency can be determined if the targets are achieved. This very well motivates a person for better job and helps him to improve his performance in the future.

TECHNIQUES / METHODS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS

Numerous methods have been devised to measure the quantity and quality of performance appraisals. Each of the methods is effective for some purposes for some organizations only. None should be dismissed or accepted as appropriate except as they relate to the particular needs of the organization or an employee.

Broadly all methods of appraisals can be divided into two different categories.

• Past Oriented Methods

• Future Oriented Methods

Past Oriented Methods

1. Rating Scales: Rating scales consists of several numerical scales representing job related performance criterions such as dependability, initiative, output, attendance, attitude etc. Each scales ranges from excellent to poor. The total numerical scores are computed and final conclusions are derived. Advantages – Adaptability, easy to use, low cost, every type of job can be evaluated, large number of employees covered, no formal training required. Disadvantages – Rater’s biases

2. Checklist: Under this method, checklist of statements of traits of employee in the form of Yes or No based questions is prepared. Here the rater only does the reporting or checking and HR department does the actual evaluation. Advantages – economy, ease of administration, limited training required, standardization. Disadvantages – Raters biases, use of improper weighs by HR, does not allow rater to give relative ratings

3. Forced Choice Method: The series of statements arranged in the blocks of two or more are given and the rater indicates which statement is true or false. The rater is forced to make a choice. HR department does actual assessment. Advantages – Absence of personal biases because of forced choice. Disadvantages – Statements may be wrongly framed.

4. Forced Distribution Method: here employees are clustered around a high point on a rating scale. Rater is compelled to distribute the employees on all points on the scale. It is assumed that the performance is conformed to normal distribution. Advantages – Eliminates Disadvantages – Assumption of normal distribution, unrealistic, errors of central tendency.

5. Critical Incidents Method: The approach is focused on certain critical behaviors of employee that makes all the difference in the performance. Supervisors as and when they occur record such incidents. Advantages – Evaluations are based on actual job behaviors, ratings are supported by descriptions, feedback is easy, reduces recency biases, chances of subordinate improvement are high. Disadvantages – Negative incidents can be prioritized, forgetting incidents, overly close supervision; feedback may be too much and may appear to be punishment.

6. Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales: statements of effective and ineffective behaviors determine the points. They are said to be behaviorally anchored. The rater is supposed to say, which behavior describes the employee performance. Advantages – helps overcome rating errors. Disadvantages – Suffers from distortions inherent in most rating techniques.

7. Field Review Method: This is an appraisal done by someone outside employees’ own department usually from corporate or HR department. Advantages – Useful for managerial level promotions, when comparable information is needed, Disadvantages – Outsider is generally not familiar with employees work environment, Observation of actual behaviors not possible.

8. Performance Tests & Observations: This is based on the test of knowledge or skills. The tests may be written or an actual presentation of skills. Tests must be reliable and validated to be useful. Advantage – Tests may be apt to measure potential more than actual performance. Disadvantages – Tests may suffer if costs of test development or administration are high.

9. Confidential Records: Mostly used by government departments, however its application in industry is not ruled out. Here the report is given in the form of Annual Confidentiality Report (ACR) and may record ratings with respect to following items; attendance, self expression, team work, leadership, initiative, technical ability, reasoning ability, originality and resourcefulness etc. The system is highly secretive and confidential. Feedback to the assessee is given only in case of an adverse entry. Disadvantage is that it is highly subjective and ratings can be manipulated because the evaluations are linked to HR actions like promotions etc.

10. Essay Method: In this method the rater writes down the employee description in detail within a number of broad categories like, overall impression of performance, promoteability of employee, existing capabilities and qualifications of performing jobs, strengths and weaknesses and training needs of the employee. Advantage – It is extremely useful in filing information gaps about the employees that often occur in a better-structured checklist. Disadvantages – It its highly dependent upon the writing skills of rater and most of them are not good writers. They may get confused success depends on the memory power of raters.

11. Cost Accounting Method: Here performance is evaluated from the monetary returns yields to his or her organization. Cost to keep employee, and benefit the organization derives is ascertained. Hence it is more dependent upon cost and benefit analysis.

12. Comparative Evaluation Method (Ranking & Paired Comparisons): These are collection of different methods that compare performance with that of other co-workers. The usual techniques used may be ranking methods and paired comparison method.

• Ranking Methods: Superior ranks his worker based on merit, from best to worst. However how best and why best are not elaborated in this method. It is easy to administer and explanation.

• Paired Comparison Methods: In this method each employee is rated with another employee in the form of pairs. The number of comparisons may be calculated with the help of a formula as under.

N x (N-1) / 2

Future Oriented Methods

1. Management By Objectives: It means management by objectives and the performance is rated against the achievement of objectives stated by the management. MBO process goes as under.

• Establish goals and desired outcomes for each subordinate

• Setting performance standards

• Comparison of actual goals with goals attained by the employee

• Establish new goals and new strategies for goals not achieved in previous year.

Advantage – It is more useful for managerial positions.

Disadvantages – Not applicable to all jobs, allocation of merit pay may result in setting short-term goals rather than important and long-term goals etc.

2. Psychological Appraisals: These appraisals are more directed to assess employees potential for future performance rather than the past one. It is done in the form of in-depth interviews, psychological tests, and discussion with supervisors and review of other evaluations. It is more focused on employees emotional, intellectual, and motivational and other personal characteristics affecting his performance. This approach is slow and costly and may be useful for bright young members who may have considerable potential. However quality of these appraisals largely depend upon the skills of psychologists who perform the evaluation.

3. Assessment Centers: This technique was first developed in USA and UK in 1943. An assessment center is a central location where managers may come together to have their participation in job related exercises evaluated by trained observers. It is more focused on observation of behaviors across a series of select exercises or work samples. Assessees are requested to participate in in-basket exercises, work groups, computer simulations, role playing and other similar activities which require same attributes for successful performance in actual job. The characteristics assessed in assessment center can be assertiveness, persuasive ability, communicating ability, planning and organizational ability, self confidence, resistance to stress, energy level, decision making, sensitivity to feelings, administrative ability, creativity and mental alertness etc. Disadvantages – Costs of employees traveling and lodging, psychologists, ratings strongly influenced by assessee’s inter-personal skills. Solid performers may feel suffocated in simulated situations. Those who are not selected for this also may get affected.

Advantages – well-conducted assessment center can achieve better forecasts of future performance and progress than other methods of appraisals. Also reliability, content validity and predictive ability are said to be high in assessment centers. The tests also make sure that the wrong people are not hired or promoted. Finally it clearly defines the criteria for selection and promotion.

4. 360-Degree Feedback: It is a technique which is systematic collection of performance data on an individual group, derived from a number of stakeholders like immediate supervisors, team members, customers, peers and self. In fact anyone who has useful information on how an employee does a job may be one of the appraisers. This technique is highly useful in terms of broader perspective, greater self-development and multi-source feedback is useful. 360-degree appraisals are useful to measure inter-personal skills, customer satisfaction and team building skills. However on the negative side, receiving feedback from multiple sources can be intimidating, threatening etc. Multiple raters may be less adept at providing balanced and objective feedback.

Motivation Meaning

Meaning:

Motivation is an important factor which encourages persons to give their best performance and help in reaching enterprise goals. A strong positive motivation will enable the increased output of employees but a negative motivation will reduce their performance. A key element in personnel management is motivation.

According to Likert, “It is the core of management which shows that every human being gives him a sense of worth in face-to face groups which are most important to him….A supervisor should strive to treat individuals with dignity and a recognition of their personal worth.”

Definitions:

Motivation has been variously defined by scholars.

Some definitions are discussed as follows:

Berelson and Steiner:

“A motive is an inner state that energizes, activates, or moves and directs or channels behaviour goals.”

Lillis:

“It is the stimulation of any emotion or desire operating upon one’s will and promoting or driving it to action.”

The Encyclopedia of Management:

“Motivation refers to degree of readiness of an organism to pursue some designated goal and implies the determination of the nature and locus of the forces, including the degree of readiness.”

Nature of Motivation:

Motivation is a psychological phenomena which generates within an individual. A person feels the lack of certain needs, to satisfy which he feels working more. The need satisfying ego motivates a person to do better than he normally does.

From definitions given earlier the following inferences can be derived:

1. Motivation is an inner feeling which energizes a person to work more.

2. The emotions or desires of a person prompt him for doing a particular work.

3. There are unsatisfied needs of a person which disturb his equilibrium.

4. A person moves to fulfill his unsatisfied needs by conditioning his energies.

5. There are dormant energies in a person which are activated by channelizing them into actions.

Types of Motivation:

When a manager wants to get more work from his subordinates then he will have to motivate them for improving their performance. They will either be offered incentive for more work, or may be in the space of rewards, better reports, recognition etc., or he may instill fear in them or use force for getting desired work.

The following are the types of motivation:

1. Positive Motivation:

Positive motivation or incentive motivation is based on reward. The workers are offered incentives for achieving the desired goals. The incentives may be in the shape of more pay, promotion, recognition of work, etc. The employees are offered the incentives and try to improve their performance willingly.

According to Peter Drucker, the real and positive motivators are responsible for placement, high standard of performance, information adequate for self- control and the participation of the worker as a responsible citizen in the plant community. Positive motivation is achieved by the co-operation of employees and they have a feeling of happiness.

2. Negative Motivation:

Negative or fear motivation is based on force or fear. Fear causes employees to act in a certain way. In case, they do not act accordingly then they may be punished with demotions or lay-offs. The fear acts as a push mechanism. The employees do not willingly co-operate, rather they want to avoid the punishment.

Though employees work up-to a level where punishment is avoided but this type of motivation causes anger and frustration. This type of motivation generally becomes a cause of industrial unrest. In spite of the drawbacks of negative motivation, this method is commonly used to achieve desired results. There may be hardly any management which has not used negative motivation at one or the other time.

Classifying Needs

People seem to have different wants. This is fortunate, because in markets this creates the very desirable situation where, because you value stuff that I have but you don't, and I value stuff that you have that I don't, we can trade in such a way that we are both happier as a result.

But it also means we need to try to get a handle on the whole variety of needs and who has them in order to begin to understand how to design organizations that maximize productivity.

Part of what a theory of motivation tries to do is explain and predict who has which wants. This turns out to be exceedingly difficult.

Many theories posit a hierarchy of needs, in which the needs at the bottom are the most urgent and need to be satisfied before attention can be paid to the others.

Maslow

Maslow's hierarchy of need categories is the most famous example:

Specific examples of these types are given below, in both the work and home context. (Some of the instances, like "education" are actually satisfiers of the need.)

Need Home Job

self-actualization education, religion, hobbies, personal growth training, advancement, growth, creativity

esteem approval of family, friends, community recognition, high status, responsibilities

belongingness family, friends, clubs teams, depts, coworkers, clients, supervisors, subordinates

safety freedom from war, poison, violence work safety, job security, health insurance

physiological food water sex Heat, air, base salary

According to Maslow, lower needs take priority. They must be fulfilled before the others are activated. There is some basic common sense here -- it's pointless to worry about whether a given color looks good on you when you are dying of starvation, or being threatened with your life. There are some basic things that take precedence over all else.

Or at least logically should, if people were rational. But is that a safe assumption? According to the theory, if you are hungry and have inadequate shelter, you won't go to church. Can't do the higher things until you have the lower things. But the poor tend to be more religious than the rich. Both within a given culture, and across nations. So the theory makes the wrong prediction here.

Or take education: how often do you hear "I can't go to class today, I haven't had sex in three days!"? Do all physiological needs including sex have to be satisfied before "higher" needs? (Besides, wouldn't the authors of the Kama Sutra argue that sex was a kind of self-expression more like art than a physiological need? that would put it in the self-actualization box). Again, the theory doesn't seem to predict correctly.

Cultural critique: Does Maslow's classification really reflect the order in which needs are satisfied, or is it more about classifying needs from a kind of "tastefulness" perspective, with lofty goals like personal growth and creativity at the top, and "base" instincts like sex and hunger at the bottom? And is self-actualization actually a fundamental need? Or just something that can be done if you have the leisure time?

Alderfer's ERG theory

Alderfer classifies needs into three categories, also ordered hierarchically:

• Growth needs (development of competence and realization of potential)

• Relatedness needs (satisfactory relations with others)

• Existence needs (physical well-being)

This is very similar to Maslow -- can be seen as just collapsing into three tiers. But maybe a bit more rational. For example, in Alderfer's model, sex does not need to be in the bottom category as it is in Maslow's model, since it is not crucial to (the individual's) existence. (Remember, this about individual motivation, not species' survival.) So by moving sex, this theory does not predict that people have to have sex before they can think about going to school, like Maslow's theory does.

Alderfer believed that as you start satisfying higher needs, they become more intense (e.g., the power you get the more you want power), like an addiction.

Do any of these theories have anything useful to say for managing businesses? Well, if true, they suggest that

• Not everyone is motivated by the same things. It depends where you are in the hierarchy (think of it as a kind of personal development scale)

• The needs hierarchy probably mirrors the organizational hierarchy to a certain extent: top managers are more likely to motivated by self-actualization/growth needs than existence needs. (but try telling Bill Clinton that top executives are not motivated by sex and cheeseburgers...)

Acquired Needs Theory (McClellan)

Some needs are acquired as a result of life experiences

• Need for achievement, accomplish something difficult. as kids encouraged to do things for themselves.

• Need for affiliation, form close personal relationships. as kids rewarded for making friends.

• Need for power, control others. as kids, able to get what they want through controlling others.

Again similar to maslow and alderfer.

These needs can be measured using the TAT (thematic apperception test), which is a projection-style test based on interpreting stories that people tell about a set of pictures.

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

This theory suggests that there are actually two motivation systems: intrinsic and extrinsic that correspond to two kinds of motivators:

• Intrinsic motivators: Achievement, responsibility and competence. motivators that come from the actual performance of the task or job -- the intrinsic interest of the work.

• Extrinsic: pay, promotion, feedback, working conditions -- things that come from a person's environment, controlled by others.

One or the other of these may be a more powerful motivator for a given individual.

Intrinsically motivated individuals perform for their own achievement and satisfaction. If they come to believe that they are doing some job because of the pay or the working conditions or some other extrinsic reason, they begin to lose motivation.

The belief is that the presence of powerful extrinsic motivators can actually reduce a person's intrinsic motivation, particularly if the extrinsic motivators are perceived by the person to be controlled by people. In other words, a boss who is always dangling this reward or that stick will turn off the intrinsically motivated people.

Note that the intrinsic motivators tend to be higher on the Maslow hierarchy.

Two Factor theory (Herzberg)

According to Herzberg, two kinds of factors affect motivation, and they do it in different ways:

• Hygiene factors. These are factors whose absence motivates, but whose presence has no perceived effect. They are things that when you take them away, people become dissatisfied and act to get them back. A very good example is heroin to a heroin addict. Long term addicts do not shoot up to get high; they shoot up to stop being sick -- to get normal. Other examples include decent working conditions, security, pay, benefits (like health insurance), company policies, interpersonal relationships. In general, these are extrinsic items low in the Maslow/Alderfer hierarchy.

• Motivators. These are factors whose presence motivates. Their absence does not cause any particular dissatisfaction, it just fails to motivate. Examples are all the things at the top of the Maslow hierarchy, and the intrinsic motivators.

So hygiene factors determine dissatisfaction, and motivators determine satisfaction. The two scales are independent, and you can be high on both.

If you think back to the class discussion on power, we talked about a baseline point on the well-being scale. Power involved a threat to reduce your well-being, causing dissatisfaction. Hence, power basically works by threatening to withhold hygiene factors. Influence was said to fundamentally be about promising improvements in well-being -- when you are influenced to do something, it is because you want to, not because you were threatened. Influence basically works by offering to provide motivators (in Herzberg's terms).

Equity Theory

Suppose employee A gets a 20% raise and employee B gets a 10% raise. Will both be motivated as a result? Will A be twice as motivated? Will be B be negatively motivated?

Equity theory says that it is not the actual reward that motivates, but the perception, and the perception is based not on the reward in isolation, but in comparison with the efforts that went into getting it, and the rewards and efforts of others. If everyone got a 5% raise, B is likely to feel quite pleased with her raise, even if she worked harder than everyone else. But if A got an even higher raise, B perceives that she worked just as hard as A, she will be unhappy.

In other words, people's motivation results from a ratio of ratios: a person compares the ratio of reward to effort with the comparable ratio of reward to effort that they think others are getting.

Of course, in terms of actually predicting how a person will react to a given motivator, this will get pretty complicated:

1. People do not have complete information about how others are rewarded. So they are going on perceptions, rumors, inferences.

2. Some people are more sensitive to equity issues than others

3. Some people are willing to ignore short-term inequities as long as they expect things to work out in the long-term.

Reinforcement Theory

Operant Conditioning is the term used by B.F. Skinner to describe the effects of the consequences of a particular behavior on the future occurrence of that behavior. There are four types of Operant Conditioning: Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, Punishment, and Extinction. Both Positive and Negative Reinforcement strengthen behavior while both Punishment and Extinction weaken behavior.

• Positive reinforcement. Strengthening a behavior. This is the process of getting goodies as a consequence of a behavior. You make a sale, you get a commission. You do a good job, you get a bonus & a promotion.

• Negative reinforcement. Strengthening a behavior. This is the process of having a stressor taken away as a consequence of a behavior. Long-term sanctions are removed from countries when their human rights records improve. (you see how successful that is!). Low status as geek at Salomon Brothers is removed when you make first big sale.

• Extinction. Weakening a behavior. This is the process of getting no goodies when do a behavior. So if person does extra effort, but gets no thanks for it, they stop doing it.

• Punishment. Weakening a behavior. This is the process of getting a punishment as a consequence of a behavior. Example: having your pay docked for lateness.

Apply Withhold

Reward positive reinforcement (raise above baseline) negative reinforcement (raise up to baseline)

Stressor punishment (bring down below baseline) extinction (stay at baseline)

Reinforcement schedules.

The traditional reinforcement schedule is called a continuous reinforcement schedule. Each time the correct behavior is performed it gets reinforced.

Then there is what we call an intermittent reinforcement schedule. There are fixed and variable categories.

The Fixed Interval Schedule is where reinforcement is only given after a certain amount of time has elapsed. So, if you decided on a 5 second interval then each reinforcement would occur at the fixed time of every 5 seconds.

The Fixed Ratio Schedule is where the reinforcement is given only after a predetermined number of responses. This is often seen in behavior chains where a number of behaviors have to occur for reinforcement to occur.

The Variable Interval Schedule is where the reinforcement is given after varying amounts of time between each reinforcement.

The Variable Ratio Schedule is where the reinforcement is given after a varying number of correct responses.

Fluctuating combinations of primary and secondary reinforcers fall under other terms in the variable ratio schedule; For example, Reinforcers delivered Intermittently in a Randomized Order (RIR) or Variable Ratio with Reinforcement Variety (VRRV).

Fixed Variable

Interval give reward after first proper response following a specified time period

(yearly raise)

[short term] give reward after a certain amt of time w/ the amt changing before the next reward

(unexpected bonus based on merit)

[medium term] Ratio punishment (subtract from baseline) (commissions or piecework pay)

[medium term] give reward after a number of responses, w/ that no. changing before the next reward

(team-based bonus)

[long term]

Expectancy Theory (Vroom)

This theory is meant to bring together many of the elements of previous theories. It combines the perceptual aspects of equity theory with the behavioral aspects of the other theories. Basically, it comes down to this "equation":

M = E*I*V

motivation = expectancy * instrumentality * valence

M (motivation) is the amount a person will be motivated by the situation they find themselves in. It is a function of the following.

E (expectancy) = The person's perception that effort will result in performance. In other words, the person's assessment of the degree to which effort actually correlates with performance.

I (instrumentality) = The person's perception that performance will be rewarded/punished. I.e., the person's assessment of how well the amount of reward correlates with the quality of performance. (Note here that the model is phrased in terms of extrinsic motivation, in that it asks 'what are the chances I'm going to get rewarded if I do good job?'. But for intrinsic situations, we can think of this as asking 'how good will I feel if I can pull this off?').

V(valence) = The perceived strength of the reward or punishment that will result from the performance. If the reward is small, the motivation will be small, even if expectancy and instrumentality are both perfect (high).

Unit-3

Human behavior process – Perception learning – Motivational and personality development – definition of learning – Learning theories – Concept – The meaning of human motivation – Comprehensive stages – Main determinants of personality – Theories of personality – Group dynamics and Internal Organization

Human Behavior

Human behaviour, the potential and expressed capacity for physical, mental, and social activity during the phases of human life.

Humans, like other animal species, have a typical life course that consists of successive phases of growth, each of which is characterized by a distinct set of physical, physiological, and behavioral features. These phases are prenatal life, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood (including old age). Human development, or developmental psychology, is a field of study that attempts to describe and explain the changes in human cognitive, emotional, and behavioral capabilities and functioning over the entire life span, from the fetus to old age.

Most scientific research on human development has concentrated on the period from birth through early adolescence, owing to both the rapidity and magnitude of the psychological changes observed during those phases and to the fact that they culminate in the optimum mental functioning of early adulthood. A primary motivation of many investigators in the field has been to determine how the culminating mental abilities of adulthood were reached during the preceding phases.

Human Behaviour Process

We assume that behaviour is caused and this assumption is true. Behaviour takes place in the form of a process. It is based on the analysis of behaviour process over the period of time. Three models of behaviour process have been developed. These are S-R model, S-O-R model, S-O-B-A model and S-O-B-C model.

S-R Model

S-R model of human behavior suggests that the behaviour is caused by certain reasons. The reasons may be internal feeling (motivation) and external environment (stimulus). A stimulus is an agent, such as, heat, light, piece of information, etc., that directly influences the activity of an organism (person). Without the stimulus there is no information to be handled by the internal processes prior to action taken by the person. It implies that his behaviour is determined by the situation. Inherent in the situation are the environmental forces that shape and determine his behaviour at any given moment. The entire situation has been traditionally described as stimulus response (S-R) process.

This S-R model, however, does not give the total concept of caused nature of behaviour specially when the person concerned plays an important role in behaviour because behaviour is shaped by his internal feelings also. Thus, combination of stimulus-response situation and human being will give more comprehensive model of human behaviour denoting that the situation interacting with the human preceeds and causes behaviour.

There is a direct relation between stimulus and response, that is why this process is called S-R process.

The basic drawback of this models is that organism or person is immobile and passive. Whereas in reality the person concerned plays an important role in behaviour which is influenced by the internal feelings of the person. This model, thus does not give a complete picture as to what caused the person to act in a particular way in a particular situation.

S-O-R Model

S-O-R model of human behaviour is achieved by inserting O (organism) in the classical S-R model. The S-O-R model is based upon the stimulus processed by the organism and followed by a behaviour. This O is not passive and immobile as assumed in S-R model. Rather the O is viewed as mediating, maintenance and adjective function between S and R. As a mediating function, the O is constantly active, scanning its surroundings, monitoring its own actions, seeking certain conditions and avoiding others. As a maintenance function, organs of O are responsible for its health and growth. There are three categories of maintenance organs-receptors (sense and glands), connectors (nervous organs) and effectors (muscles and glands). The adjustments function of the O monitors the person's activities so that he can overcome obstacle and satisfy his needs.

Though the insertion of O in S-R model gives some recognition to the importance to the human variables, it sill remains a relatively mechanistic and simplistic approach and does not explain the complexity of human behaviour.

S-O-B-A Model

S-O-B-A model is a comprehensive model of human behaviour which combines the S-R situation and human being. But O in this model is not passive or immobile, but it is mediating, maintenance and adjustive function between S and R.

The S in this model stands for stimulus or the external environmental situation. It includes light, heat, sound, actions of supervisors or other aspects of environment to which a person is sensitive. The stimulus is very comprehensive and all encompassing in nature. It stimulates the organism or person in to action, interrupt what they are doing and help them to make their choices. The stimulus incorporates all aspects of the environment-immediate stimulus, physical environment and socio-cultural environment.

The O in this model stands for the organism as the person. But this O does not stand for only the physiological being but also it includes the process within the person, e.g., heredity, maturity, knowledge, skills, values, perceptions, attitudes, personality and motivation. The double headed arrow between S and O indicates the interaction between the situation and organism.

The B stands for behaviour. It includes both overt and covert behaviour such as body moments, talking, facial expressions, emotions, sentiments and thinking. The response of organism indicated by a single headed arrow is the behaviour. Behaviour is anything that a person does, it is not something that is done to a person.

The A stands for accomplishments and consequences. When behaviour, in turn, acts on the outside world, it leads to accomplishment as shown by single headed arrow. It is assumed that the accomplishments may further change the stimulating conditions and thereby influence the subsequent behaviour or it may create new stimulus leading to new behaviour.

Since behaviour is influenced by the interaction of S with O, any change in S and O will definitely influence the behaviour. It is manager's job to decide when to change the S and to change O. But one must analyse the conditions carefully so that the changes introduced are in the right direction and do not give rise to worse problems. Further, the same behaviour may have different causes. In order to adequately understand and evaluate the behaviour, it is essential to determine which cause is involved in a particular instance. The type of treatment of the S or of the O that will work in one cause may not work in another cause or even with the same cause on different occasions. Similarly, the same cause may have many behaviours.

S-O-B-C Model

S-O-B-C model incorporates a more complex mechanism of human behaviour which modifies and extends S-O-R model. In this model, S stands for the situation which is more comprehensive than stimuli of S-O-R model and incorporates all aspects of the environment - immediate stimulus, physical environment and socio-cultural environment. O is the organism but does not only represent the physiological being as in the S-O-R model, but also the physiological being which is more complex. B stands for pattern of behaviour both overt and convert. C stands for contingent consequences both overt and covert. Thus, this model of behaviour has significant departure from earlier models of behaviour which have considered only overt aspects. In S-O-B-C model, behaviour takes place because of the interaction of situation (S), organism (O), behaviour pattern (B) and consequences (C).

Perception learning

Perceptual learning results in changes in the pickup of information as a result of practice or experience. Perception and action are a cycle: People act in order to learn about their surroundings, and they use what they learn to guide their actions. From this perspective, the critical defining features of perception include the exploratory actions of the perceiver and the knowledge of the events, animate and inanimate objects, and surrounding environment gained while engaged in looking, listening, touching, walking, and other forms of direct observation. Perception often results in learning information that is directly relevant to the goals at hand, but sometimes it results in learning that is incidental to one's immediate goals.

Motivation

Motivation is the word derived from the word ’motive’ which means needs, desires, wants or drives within the individuals. It is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish the goals. In the work goal context the psychological factors stimulating the people’s behaviour can be -

· Desire for money

· Success

· Recognition

· Job-satisfaction

· Team work, etc

One of the most important functions of management is to create willingness amongst the employees to perform in the best of their abilities. Therefore the role of a leader is to arouse interest in performance of employees in their jobs. The process of motivation consists of three stages:-

· A felt need or drive

· A stimulus in which needs have to be aroused

· When needs are satisfied, the satisfaction or accomplishment of goals.

Therefore, we can say that motivation is a psychological phenomenon which means needs and wants of the individuals have to be tackled by framing an incentive plan.

Personality

The word personality is derived from a Greek word “persona” which means “to speak through.” Personality is the combination of characteristics or qualities that forms a person’s unique identity. It signifies the role which a person plays in public. Every individual has a unique, personal and major determinant of his behavior that defines his/her personality.

Personality trait is basically influenced by two major features −

· Inherited characteristics

· Learned characteristic

Inherited Characteristics

The features an individual acquires from their parents or forefathers, in other words the gifted features an individual possesses by birth is considered as inherited characteristics. It consists of the following features −

· Color of a person’s eye

· Religion/Race of a person

· Shape of the nose

· Shape of earlobes

· Learned Characteristics

Nobody learns everything by birth. First, our school is our home, then our society, followed by educational institutes. The characteristics an individual acquires by observing, practicing, and learning from others and the surroundings is known as learned characteristics.

Learned characteristics includes the following features −

Perception − Result of different senses like feeling, hearing etc.

Values − Influences perception of a situation, decision making process.

Personality − Patterns of thinking, feeling, understanding and behaving.

Attitude − Positive or negative attitude like expressing one’s thought.

PERSONALITY THEORY

Personality psychology is the focus of some of the best-known psychology theories by a number of famous thinkers including Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson. Some of these theories attempt to tackle a specific area of personality while others attempt to explain personality much more broadly.

Biological Theories

Biological approaches suggest that genetics are responsible for personality. In the classic nature versus nurture debate, the biological theories of personality side with nature.

Research on heritability suggests that there is a link between genetics and personality traits.3 Twin studies are often used to investigate which traits might be linked to genetics versus those that might be linked to environmental variables. For example, researchers might look at differences and similarities in the personalities of twins reared together versus those who are raised apart.

One of the best known biological theorists was Hans Eysenck, who linked aspects of personality to biological processes.

Behavioral Theories

Behavioral theorists include B. F. Skinner and John B. Watson. Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment.5 Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable behaviors, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts, moods, and feelings play a part as these cannot be measured.

Psychodynamic Theories

Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud and emphasize the influence of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences on personality.6

Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freud's psychosexual stage theory and Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development.

Freud suggested that children progress through a series of stages in which the id's energy is focused on different erogenous zones.

Erikson also believed that personality progressed through a series of stages, with certain conflicts arising at each stage. Success in any stage depends on successfully overcoming these conflicts.

Humanist Theories

Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in the development of personality.

Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Trait Theories

The trait theory approach is one of the most prominent areas in personality psychology. According to these theories, personality is made up of a number of broad traits. A trait is a relatively stable characteristic that causes an individual to behave in certain ways. It is essentially the psychological "blueprint" that informs behavioral patterns.

Some of the best-known trait theories include Eysenck's three-dimension theory and the five-factor theory of personality.

Eysenck utilized personality questionnaires to collect data from participants and then employed a statistical technique known as factor analysis to analyze the results. Eysenck concluded that there were three major dimensions of personality: extroversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.8

Eysenck believed that these dimensions then combine in different ways to form an individual's unique personality. Later, Eysenck added the third dimension known as psychoticism, which related to things such as aggression, empathy, and sociability.

Learning

Learning can be defined as the permanent change in behavior due to direct and indirect experience. It means change in behavior, attitude due to education and training, practice and experience. It is completed by acquisition of knowledge and skills, which are relatively permanent.

Nature of Learning

Nature of learning means the characteristic features of learning. Learning involves change; it may or may not guarantee improvement. It should be permanent in nature, that is learning is for lifelong.

The change in behavior is the result of experience, practice and training. Learning is reflected through behavior.

Factors Affecting Learning

Learning is based upon some key factors that decide what changes will be caused by this experience. The key elements or the major factors that affect learning are motivation, practice, environment, and mental group.

Coming back to these factors let us have a look on these factors −

Motivation − The encouragement, the support one gets to complete a task, to achieve a goal is known as motivation. It is a very important aspect of learning as it acts gives us a positive energy to complete a task. Example − The coach motivated the players to win the match.

Practice − We all know that ”Practice makes us perfect”. In order to be a perfectionist or at least complete the task, it is very important to practice what we have learnt. Example − We can be a programmer only when we execute the codes we have written.

Environment − We learn from our surroundings, we learn from the people around us. They are of two types of environment – internal and external. Example − A child when at home learns from the family which is an internal environment, but when sent to school it is an external environment.

Mental group − It describes our thinking by the group of people we chose to hang out with. In simple words, we make a group of those people with whom we connect. It can be for a social cause where people with the same mentality work in the same direction. Example − A group of readers, travelers, etc.

Learning Theory

Some of the remarkable theories are −

· Classical Conditioning Theory

· Operant Conditioning Theory

· Social Learning Theory

· Cognitive Learning Theory

Classical Conditioning Theory

The classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus is coupled with an unconditioned stimulus. Usually, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is an impartial stimulus like the sound of a tuning fork, the unconditioned stimulus (US) is biologically effective like the taste of food and the unconditioned response (UR) to the unconditioned stimulus is an unlearned reflex response like salivation or sweating.

After this coupling process is repeated (for example, some learning may already occur after a single coupling), an individual shows a conditioned response (CR) to the conditioned stimulus, when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. The conditioned response is mostly similar to the unconditioned response, but unlike the unconditioned response, it must be acquired through experience and is nearly impermanent.

Operant Conditioning Theory

Operant conditioning theory is also known as instrumental conditioning. This theory is a learning process in which behavior is sensitive to, or controlled by its outcomes.

Let’s take an example of a child. A child may learn to open a box to get the candy inside, or learn to avoid touching a hot stove. In comparison, the classical conditioning develops a relationship between a stimulus and a behavior. The example can be further elaborated as the child may learn to salivate at the sight of candy, or to tremble at the sight of an angry parent.

In the 20th century, the study of animal learning was commanded by the analysis of these two sorts of learning, and they are still at the core of behavior analysis.

Social Learning Theory

The key assumptions of social learning theory are as follows −

Learning is not exactly behavioral, instead it is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context.

Learning can occur by observing a behavior and by observing the outcomes of the behavior (known as vicarious reinforcement).

Learning includes observation, extraction of information from those observations, and making decisions regarding the performance of the behavior (known as observational learning or modeling). Thus, learning can occur beyond an observable change in behavior.

Reinforcement plays an important role in learning but is not completely responsible for learning.

The learner is not a passive receiver of information. Understanding, environment, and behavior all mutually influence each other.

Cognitive Learning Theory

Cognition defines a person’s ideas, thoughts, knowledge, interpretation, understanding about himself and environment.

This theory considers learning as the outcome of deliberate thinking on a problem or situation based upon known facts and responding in an objective and more oriented manner. It perceives that a person learns the meaning of various objects and events and also learns the response depending upon the meaning assigned to the stimuli.

This theory debates that the learner forms a cognitive structure in memory which stores organized information about the various events that occurs.

Group Dynamics

What is Group Dynamics?

Group dynamics deals with the attitudes and behavioral patterns of a group. Group dynamics concern how groups are formed, what is their structure and which processes are followed in their functioning. Thus, it is concerned with the interactions and forces operating between groups.

Group dynamics is relevant to groups of all kinds – both formal and informal. If the UPA government has set up Group of Ministers for every governance issue, the Supreme Court of India has 27 Group of Judges committees overseeing all manner of non-judicial work in the apex court. In an organizational setting, the term groups are a very common and the study of groups and group dynamics is an important area of study.

What is A Group?

Every organization is a group unto itself. A group refers to two or more people who share a common meaning and evaluation of themselves and come together to achieve common goals. In other words, a group is a collection of people who interact with one another; accept rights and obligations as members and who share a common identity.

Characteristics of a Group:

Regardless of the size or the purpose, every group has similar characteristics:

Collection of two or more people

Groups are the collection of two or large groups of people. Groups are composed of two or more persons in social interaction. One plus one makes a group and groups and groups form an organization. A single person cannot form a group as it at least requires two people for group formation.

Common goal or interest

In a group, every member shares common interests or goals. For example, members of a marketing department constitute a group that is sustained by the mutual interest of the members. The shared goal determines and identifies that all the members of the group have common goals.

Interaction and interdependent

In any group, there is interaction and interdependence among the group members either physically or virtually to accomplish the group goal.

For example, co-workers may work side by side on related tasks in a work unit.

Collective identity

Groups have a collective identity, not the sum of individual members. Perhaps, it is the awareness of each other that most clearly differentiates a group from an aggregation of individuals. Groups are composed of people who recognize each other as a member of their group and can distinguish these individuals from non-members.

A stable structure

Groups have a defined structure that gives a relationship that keeps group members together with stable functioning as a unit. It clarifies the roles, authority, and responsibility of each group member which is important to accomplish group goals.

Process/Stages of Group Development/Evolution:

Group Development is a dynamic process. How do groups evolve? There is a process of five stages through which groups pass through. The process includes the five stages: forming, storming, forming, performing, and adjourning.

Forming:

The first stage in the life of a group is concerned with forming a group. This stage is characterized by members seeking either a work assignment (in a formal group) or other benefit, like status, affiliation, power, etc. (in an informal group). Members at this stage either engage in busy type of activity or show apathy.

Storming:

The next stage in this group is marked by the formation of dyads and triads. Members seek out familiar or similar individuals and begin a deeper sharing of self. Continued attention to the subgroup creates a differentiation in the group and tensions across the dyads / triads may appear. Pairing is a common phenomenon. There will be conflict about controlling the group.

Norming:

The third stage of group development is marked by a more serious concern about task performance. The dyads/triads begin to open up and seek out other members in the group. Efforts are made to establish various norms for task performance.

Members begin to take greater responsibility for their own group and relationship while the authority figure becomes relaxed. Once this stage is complete, a clear picture will emerge about hierarchy of leadership. The norming stage is over with the solidification of the group structure and a sense of group identity and camaraderie.

Performing:

This is a stage of a fully functional group where members see themselves as a group and get involved in the task. Each person makes a contribution and the authority figure is also seen as a part of the group. Group norms are followed and collective pressure is exerted to ensure the Process of Group effectiveness of the group.

The group may redefine its goals Development in the light of information from the outside environment and show an autonomous will to pursue those goals. The long-term viability of the group is established and nurtured.

Adjourning:

In the case of temporary groups, like project team, task force, or any other such group, which have a limited task at hand, also have a fifth stage, This is known as adjourning.

The group decides to disband. Some members may feel happy over the performance, and some may be unhappy over the stoppage of meeting with group members. Adjourning may also be referred to as mourning, i.e. mourning the adjournment of the group.

The readers must note that the four stages of group development mentioned above for permanent groups are merely suggestive. In reality, several stages may go on simultaneously.

Unit -4

Discipline – Meaning - Causes of Indiscipline – Acts of Indiscipline – Procedure for Disciplinary Action – Grievance – Meaning – Characteristics of Grievances – Causes of Grievance

Discipline

Meaning:

In simple words, the word discipline connotes orderly behaviour by the members/employees. In other words, discipline implies behaving in a desired manner. By that we mean that employees confirm to the rules and regulations framed by the organisation for an acceptable behaviour. Following definitions of discipline will make its meaning more clear.

According to Richard D. Calhoon’, “Discipline may be considered as a force that prompts individuals or groups to observe the rules, regulations and procedures which are deemed to be necessary for the effective functioning of an organisation”.

William R. Spreigel and Edward Schultz define discipline as “the force that prompts an individual or a group to observe the rules, regulations and procedures which are deemed to be necessary to the attainment of an objective, it is force or fear of force which restrains an individual or a group from doing things which are deemed to be destructive of group objectives. It is also the exercise of restraint or the enforcement of penalties for the violation of group regulations”.

In the opinion of Ordway Tead, “Discipline is the order, members of an organisation who adhere to its necessary regulations because they desire to cooperate harmoniously in forwarding the end which the group has in view”.

Thus, discipline can now be defined as a condition in the organisation when employees conduct themselves in accordance with the organisation’s rules and standards of acceptable behaviour.

Features:

The main features or characteristics of discipline that flow from above definitions are:

1. Discipline is self-control:

It refers to one’s efforts at self-control to conform to organisational rules, regulations and procedures which have been established to ensure the successful attainment of organisational goals.

2. It is a negative approach:

It means discipline encourages people to undertake some activities, on the one hand, and restrains them from undertaking others, on the other.

3. It is a punitive approach:

It means that discipline also imposes penalty or punishment if the rules and regulations framed by the organisation are not obeyed or ignored by the members. Punishment is imposed not to change past behaviour but to prevent its recurrence in future.

Objectives of discipline:

The objectives of discipline are to:

1. Motivate an employee to comply with the company’s performance standards:

Employee receives discipline after failing to meet some obligation of job. The failure could be either directly related to the tasks performed by the employee or ignoring rules and regulations that define proper conduct at work.

2. Maintain respect and trust between the supervisor and employee:

Discipline if not properly administered can create problems like low morale, resentment, and ill-will between the employees. In such case, improvement in employee’s behaviour, if any, will be relatively short-lived and the supervisor will need to discipline the employee again and again. On the contrary, properly administered discipline will not only improve employee behaviour but will also minimize future disciplinary problems through good relationship between the supervisor and the employee.

3. Improve the performance of the employee:

Discipline for poor task performance should not be applied while employees are on training or learning the job. Nor should employees be disciplined for problems beyond their control, for example, failure to meet output standards due to the lack of raw materials. Yes, discipline should be exercised when employees are found responsible for unsatisfactory performance.

4. Increase the morale and working efficiency of the employees.

5. Foster industrial peace which is the very foundation of industrial democracy.

Causes of Indiscipline:

The reasons could range anything from poor wages to, poor management and the communication gaps between the union and management.

The common causes of indiscipline are as follows:

1. Unfair Management Practices:

Management sometimes indulges in unfair practices like:

· Wage discrimination

· Non-compliance with promotional policies and transfer policies

· Discrimination in allotment of work

· Defective handling of grievances

· Payment of low wages

· Delay in payment of wages

· Creating low quality work life etc.

These unfair management practices gradually result in indiscipline.

2. Absence of Effective Leadership:

Absence of effective leadership results in poor management in the areas of direction, guidance, instructions etc. This in turn, results in indiscipline. I am sure you remember the importance of leadership as studied in the last semester. If you do (which I suppose you do), you can relate the importance of effective leadership with handling indiscipline.

3. Communication Barriers:

Communication barriers and absence of humane approach on the part of superiors result in frustration and indiscipline among the workers. The management should clearly formulate the policies regarding discipline. These policies should be communicated and the policies should be consistently followed in the organisations. The management should also be empathetic towards the employees.

4. Varying Disciplinary Measures:

Consistent disciplinary actions must be there in the organisation to provide equal justice to all concerned. At different times and for everyone, the same standard of disciplinary measures should be taken otherwise it may give rise to growing indiscipline in the industry in future i.e., the judicious function on the past of management must be free form may bias, privilege or favouritism.

5. Defective Supervision:

Supervisor is the immediate boss of the workers and many disciplinary problems have their in faulty supervision. The attitude and behavior of the supervisor may create many problems. As the maintenance of the discipline is the discipline is the core f supervisory responsibilities, indiscipline may spring from the want of the right type of supervision.

6. Inadequate attention to personnel Problems:

Delay in solving personnel problems develops frustration among individual workers. The management should be proactive so that there is no discontent among the workers. It should adopt a parental attitude towards its employees.

However it should be noted that no relationship can continue for long if it is one sided. What I am implying here is that the workers should also live up to their commitments. They should be reasonable in their demands.

7. Victimisation:

Victimisation of subordinate also results in indiscipline. The management should not exploit the workers. It is also in the long-term interest of the management to take care of its internal customers

8. Absence of Code of Conduct:

This creates confusion and also provides chance for discrimination while taking disciplinary action. We will be discussing Code of Discipline in details etc.

A code of conduct is a set of rules outlining the responsibilities of or proper practices for an individual, party or organization. Related concepts include ethical codes and honor codes.

8. Divide and Rule Policy:

Many mangers in the business obtain secret information about other employees through their trusted assistants. The spying on employees is only productive of a vicious atmosphere and of undesirable in the organization. Henry Fayol has rightly pointed out that dividing enemy forces to weaken them is clever, but dividing one's own team is grave sin against the business. No amount of management skill is necessary for dividing personnel, but integrating personnel into a team is the challenging task of sound management.

9. Deferring settlement of Employee Grievances:

The employee grievances cannot be put off by deferring or neglecting their solutions. The grievances should properly be inquired into and settled by the managers in a reasonable period. Neglect of grievances often results in reduced performance, low morale and indiscipline among the employees. Strikes and work stoppages stem in many cases form the utter neglect of employee grievances.

10. Mis-judgment in Promotion and Placements:

Mis-judgment in personnel matters like promotion and placements contribute to the growth of indiscipline in an enterprise. Cases of mis-judgment are carefully noted, widely circulated, and hotly debated by the employees. Expecting discipline from misruled people is not possible. Sometimes, undesired persons are placed on the jobs which makes the employees discontented, then giving rise to the problem of indiscipline.

Acts of Indiscipline

Every act of indiscipline is called misconduct. It is very difficult to prepare an exhaustive list of all such acts:

1. Disobedience or willful insubordination.

2. Theft, fraud or dishonesty in connection with employer’s goods or property.

3. Willful damage or loss of employer’s goods or property.

4. Taking or giving any bribes or illegal gratification.

5. Habitual absence without leave or unauthorised absence for more than a certain number of days.

6. Habitual late attendance.

7. Habitual breach of any law applicable to the establishment.

8. Riotous or disorderly behaviour during working hours at the establishment or any act subversive of discipline.

9. Habitual negligence or neglect of work or frequent repetition of any act or omission for which fine may be imposed.

10. Striking work or inciting others to strike in contravention of any law.

11. Adopting go-slow tactics.

12. Collecting or canvassing for the collection of funds for any trade union or canvassing for its membership during working hours within the company premises.

13. Distributing or exhibiting inside the factory any newspapers, handbills, pamphlets or posters without the previous sanction of the manager.

14. Refusal to work on another machine of the same type.

15. Holding general meetings inside the factory premises without the previous sanction of the manager.

16. Disclosing to any unauthorised person any information in regard to the working or “process” of the factory which comes into the possession of the workman during the course of his work.

17. Sleeping or dosing while on duty.

18. Refusing to accept a charge sheet, order or other communication.

19. Interfering or tampering with the records of the company.

20. Conviction by any court of law for any criminal offence involving moral turpitude.

21. Smoking within the factory except in places where smoking is permitted.

Procedure for Disciplinary Action

Though there is no rigid and specific procedure for talking a disciplinary action, disciplinary procedure followed in industries usually consists of the following steps:

1. Framing a charge and issuing a letter: When an employee commits an act of misconduct that requires disciplinary action, the employee concerned should be issued a charge sheet. Charges of misconduct or indiscipline should be clearly and precisely stated in the charge sheet. The charge sheet should also ask for an explanation for the said delinquent act and the employee should be given sufficient time in answering this.

2. Consideration of explanation: On getting the answer for the letter of charge served, the explanation furnished is considered and if it is not satisfactory then disciplinary action need be taken. On the contrary when the management is satisfied with the employee’s explanation there is no need for serving a show cause notice.

3. Issuing show cause notice: Show cause notice is issued by the manager when he is convinced that there is sufficient prima facie evidence of employee’s misconduct. However, this gives the employee another chance to account for his misconduct vis-à-vis. The charges made against him. Inquiry should also be initiated by first serving him a notice of inquiry indicating clearly the name of the inquiring officer, time, date and place on inquiry, etc.

4. Making a full-fledged inquiry: In conformity with the principle of natural justice, the employee concerned must be given an opportunity of being heard. When the process of inquiry is over and the findings of the same are recorded, the Inquiry Officer should suggest the nature of disciplinary action to be taken.

5. Passing the final order of punishment: Disciplinary action is to be taken when he misconduct of the employee is proved. While deciding the nature of disciplinary action, the employee’s previous record, precedents, effects of disciplinary action on other employees, etc., have to be considered.

When the employee feels that the inquiry conducted was not proper and the action taken is unjustified, he must be given a chance to make an appeal.

6. Follow up: After taking the disciplinary action, a proper follow up action has to be taken and the consequences of the implementation of disciplinary action should be noted and taken care of.

Grievance Meaning

A grievance is a sign of employee’s discontent with job and its nature. The employee has got certain aspirations and expectations which he thinks must be fulfilled by the organisation where he is working. When the organisation fails to satisfy the employee needs, he develops a feeling of discontent or dissatisfaction.

Definitions

According to J.M. Jucius, “A grievance is any discontent or dissatisfaction whether expressed or not, whether valid or not, arising out of anything connected with the company which an employee thinks, believes or even feels to be unfair, unjust or inequitable”.

In the words of Edward Flippo, “It is a type of discontent which must always be expressed. A grievance is usually more formal in character than a complaint. It can be valid or ridiculous and must grow out of something connected with company operations or policy. It must involve an interpretation or application of the provisions of the labour contract”.

Characteristics of Grievances:

A grievance may have the following characteristics:

(a) Factual:

The employer-employee relationship depends upon the job contract in any organisation. This contract indicates the norms defining the limits ‘Within which the employee expects the organisation to fulfill his aspirations, needs or expectations. When these legitimate needs of expectations or aspirations are not fulfilled, the employee will be dissatisfied with the job.

Such dissatisfaction is called factual grievance. For instance, when an employee is not given promotion which is due to him or when work conditions are unsafe, grievances of employee relating to these issues are based on facts. In other words, these grievances reflect the drawbacks in the implementation of the organisational policies.

(b) Imaginary:

When the job contract is not clear-cut and does not indicate the norms defining the limits within which the employee expects the organisation fulfill his needs or aspirations, the employee develops such needs which the organisation is not obliged to meet.

Here, grievances are not based on facts. Even then the employee feels aggrieved. Normally, the organisation does not feel any kind of responsibility for such grievances and their redressal, because they are based not only on wrong perceptions of the employee but also on wrong information.

However, such grievances can have far-reaching consequences on the organisation because the employees are likely to develop an altogether negative attitude towards the organisation which decreases their effectiveness and involvement in work.

(c) Disguised:

In general organisations consider the basic requirements of their employees. Psychological needs of the employees such as need for recognition, affection, power, achievement etc., are normally unattended and ignored.

For instance, an employee complaining very strongly about the working conditions in the office may in turn be seeking some recognition and appreciation from his or her colleagues. Hence, disguised grievances should also be considered since they do have far-reaching consequences in case they are unattended and ignored.

Causes of Grievance

There are various factors that leave an employee unhappy and dissatisfied at the workplace. They become a cause of concern and results in a demotivated staff. Below are some of the causes:

1. Inadequate Wages and Bonus

2. Unachievable and Irrational Targets and Standards

3. Bad Working Conditions

4. Inadequate Health and Safety Sevices

5. Strained Relationship Amongst the Employees

6. Layoffs and Retrenchment

7. Lack of Career Planning and Employee Development Plan

1. Inadequate Wages and Bonus

When the workers are not paid adequate amount of wages and bonus for their hard work or if equal wages are not paid for the same work, grievance may arise.

2. Unachievable and Irrational Targets and Standards

Sometimes targets set by the managers are so impractical, that they cannot be achieved easily. Workers eventually get under tremendous stress and pressure in the effort of chasing the targets, this leads to grievance among the employees.

3. Bad Working Conditions

Working conditions is a very important factor that impacts the satisfaction level of an employee. Bad working conditions, unavailability of tools and proper machinery etc lead to grievances amongst the employees.

4. Inadequate Health and Safety Sevices

Companies while paying attention to maximizing their profit end up compromising with the health and safety conditions of the employees. Unhygienic environment, poor safety conditions etc demotivates an employee to come to the work place.

5. Strained Relationship Amongst the Employees

Sometimes the employee feels jealous, anxious, nervous etc. working with their employees, superior or subordinate. Absence of healthy relationship amongst the employees leads to an environment which is conducive to unhappiness, dissatisfaction and grievance.

6. Layoffs and Retrenchment

At the time of economic breakdown, every company try to reduce the strength of their employees so that they can cut down the overall cost. In such cases, the retrenched employees feel cheated and it also instils fear in the minds of the employees who are retained.

7. Lack of Career Planning and Employee Development Plan

Planning enables employees to think about their future and overall development. For the employees to stay successful in their career it is a must for them to keep pace with the changing trend and environment. Lack of planning and showing no interest in the development of an employee makes them dissatisfied and stagnant in life.

Unit-5

Training and Development-Principles of Training- Assessment of training needs-On the Job training methods - Off the job training methods – Evaluation of effectiveness of training programmes.

Talent Management: Role of HR Manager in Talent Management- Efficiency of talent Management

Training and Development

Definition of Training & Development:

“Training & Development is any attempt to improve current or future employee performance by increasing an employee’s ability to perform through learning, usually by changing the employee’s attitude or increasing his or her skills and knowledge.”

MEANING OF TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT: –

The need for Training and Development is determined by the employee’s performance deficiency, computed as follows.

Training & Development Need = Standard Performance – Actual Performance

We can make a distinction among Training, Development and Education.

Advantages of Development

1. Making them

· Self-starters

· Committed

· Motivated

· Result oriented

· Sensitive to environment

· Understand use of power

Difference between Training and Development

Training	Development
Training is skills focused	Development is creating learning abilities
Training is presumed to have a formal education	Development is not education dependent
Training needs depend upon lack or deficiency in skills	Development depends on personal drive and ambition
Trainings are generally need based	Development is voluntary
Training is a narrower concept focused on job related skills	Development is a broader concept focused on personality development
Training may not include development	Development includes training wherever necessary
Training is aimed at improving job related efficiency and performance	Development aims at overall personal effectiveness including job efficiencies

What are the Training Inputs?

· Skills

· Education

· Development

· Ethics

· Problem Solving Skills

· Decision Making

· Attitudinal Changes

Importance of Training & Development

· Helps remove performance deficiencies in employees

· Greater stability, flexibility and capacity for growth in an organization

· Accidents, scraps and damages to machinery can be avoided

· Serves as effective source of recruitment

· It is an investment in HR with a promise of better returns in future

· Reduces dissatisfaction, absenteeism, complaints and turnover of employees

Need of Training

Individual level

· Diagnosis of present problems and future challenges

· Improve individual performance or fix up performance deficiency

· Improve skills or knowledge or any other problem

· To anticipate future skill-needs and prepare employee to handle more challenging tasks

· To prepare for possible job transfers

Group level

· To face any change in organization strategy at group levels

· When new products and services are launched

· To avoid scraps and accident rates

Identification of Training Needs (Methods)

Individual Training Needs Identification

1. Performance Appraisals

2. Interviews

3. Questionnaires

4. Attitude Surveys

5. Training Progress Feedback

6. Work Sampling

7. Rating Scales

Group Level Training Needs Identification

1. Organizational Goals and Objectives

2. Personnel / Skills Inventories

3. Organizational Climate Indices

4. Efficiency Indices

5. Exit Interviews

6. MBO / Work Planning Systems

7. Quality Circles

8. Customer Satisfaction Survey

9. Analysis of Current and Anticipated Changes

Benefits of Training Needs Identification

1. Trainers can be informed about the broader needs in advance

2. Trainers Perception Gaps can be reduced between employees and their supervisors Trainers can design course inputs closer to the specific needs of the participants

3. Diagnosis of causes of performance deficiencies can be done

Methods of Training

On the Job Trainings: These methods are generally applied on the workplace while employees is actually working. Following are the on-the-job methods.

Advantages of On-the-Job Training:

It is directly in the context of job

It is often informal

It is most effective because it is learning by experience

It is least expensive

Trainees are highly motivated

It is free from artificial classroom situations

Disadvantages of On-the-Job Training:

Trainer may not be experienced enough to train

It is not systematically organized

Poorly conducted programs may create safety hazards

On the Job Training Methods

1. Job Rotation: In this method, usually employees are put on different jobs turn by turn where they learn all sorts of jobs of various departments. The objective is to give a comprehensive awareness about the jobs of different departments. Advantage – employee gets to know how his own and other departments also function. Interdepartmental coordination can be improved, instills team spirit. Disadvantage – It may become too much for an employee to learn. It is not focused on employees own job responsibilities. Employees basic talents may remain under utilized.

2. Job Coaching: An experienced employee can give a verbal presentation to explain the nitty-gritty’s of the job.

3. Job Instruction: It may consist an instruction or directions to perform a particular task or a function. It may be in the form of orders or steps to perform a task.

4. Apprenticeships: Generally fresh graduates are put under the experienced employee to learn the functions of job.

5. Internships and Assistantships: An intern or an assistants are recruited to perform a specific time-bound jobs or projects during their education. It may consist a part of their educational courses.

Off the Job Trainings: These are used away from work places while employees are not working like classroom trainings, seminars etc. Following are the off-the-job methods;

Advantages of Off-the-Job Training:

Trainers are usually experienced enough to train

It is systematically organized

Efficiently created programs may add lot of value

Disadvantages of Off-the-Job Training:

It is not directly in the context of job

It is often formal

It is not based on experience

It is least expensive

Trainees may not be highly motivated

It is more artificial in nature

Off the Job Training Methods

1. Classroom Lectures: It is a verbal lecture presentation by an instructor to a large audience. Advantage – It can be used for large groups. Cost per trainee is low. Disadvantages – Low popularity. It is not learning by practice. It is One-way communication. No authentic feedback mechanism. Likely to boredom.

2. Audio-Visual: It can be done using Films, Televisions, Video, and Presentations etc. Advantages – Wide range of realistic examples, quality control possible,. Disadvantages – One-way communication, No feedback mechanism. No flexibility for different audience.

3. Simulation: creating a real life situation for decision-making and understanding the actual job conditions give it. Following are some of the simulation methods of trainings

4. Case Studies: It is a written description of an actual situation and trainer is supposed to analyze and give his conclusions in writing. The cases are generally based on actual organizational situations. It is an ideal method to promote decision-making abilities within the constraints of limited data. Role Plays: Here trainees assume the part of the specific personalities in a case study and enact it in front of the audience. It is more emotional orientation and improves interpersonal relationships. Attitudinal change is another result. These are generally used in MDP.

5. Sensitivity Trainings: This is more from the point of view of behavioral assessment, under different circumstances how an individual will behave himself and towards others. There is no preplanned agenda and it is instant. Advantages – increased ability to empathize, listening skills, openness, tolerance, and conflict resolution skills. Disadvantage – Participants may resort to their old habits after the training.

6. Programmed Instructions: Provided in the form of blocks either in book or a teaching machine using questions and Feedbacks without the intervention of trainer. Advantages – Self paced, trainees can progress at their own speed, strong motivation for repeat learning, material is structured and self-contained. Disadvantages – Scope for learning is less; cost of books, manuals or machinery is expensive.

7. Computer Aided Instructions: It is extension of PI method, by using computers. Advantages – Provides accountabilities, modifiable to technological innovations, flexible to time. Disadvantages – High cost

Evaluation of effectiveness of training programmes

The Kirkpatrick Evaluation Model

During the 1950s, the University of Wisconsin Professor Donald Kirkpatrick developed the Kirkpatrick Evaluation Model for evaluating training. With a simple, 4-level approach, this is one of the most successful models that help you measure the effectiveness of customized corporate training programs. Here are the four levels of measurement and the key indicators to look for at each level.

Level 1 - Reaction

This level measures how learners have reacted to the training, the relevance and usefulness of the training. Use surveys, questionnaires or talk to learners before and after the course to collect their feedback on the learning experience.

Topics to cover during your discussion:

· Was the course content relevant and easy to follow?

· Ask questions about the learnings and key takeaways.

· Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the program.

· Understand if the training was able to accommodate the learner’s pace and learning style.

At the end of Level 1, you should have a good understanding of how well the training was received and determine any gaps in the training content.

Level 2 - Learning

Measure the knowledge and skills gained by learners as a result of the training. To measure this level, you can use a combination of metrics such as:

· Test scores during and after the training

· Evaluation of applied learning projects

· Influence on performance KPIs

· Course completion and certification

· Supervisor report and feedback

At this stage of evaluation, you will be able to determine if the training is meeting its set objectives, what are the specific skills that can be developed with this training, and the scope for improvements in content and method of delivery.

Level 3 - Behavior

Understand how the training has impacted the learner’s performance and attitude at work. Evaluate how the training has influenced the learner’s performance and delivery at work by using a combination of these methods:

· Self-assessment questionnaires

· Informal feedback from peers and managers

· Focus groups

· On-the-job observation

· Actual job performance key performance indicators (KPIs)

· Customer surveys, comments, or complaints

Topics to cover in your assessment include:

How has learning been implemented at work?

Are the learners confident to share their new skills and knowledge with their peers?

Level 4 - Results

Measure the tangible results of the training such as reduced cost, improved quality, faster project completion, increased productivity, employee retention, better marketing leads, increased sales, and higher morale. Key metrics to measure are:

· Improved business results

· Increased productivity and quality of work

· Employee retention

· Higher morale

· Customer satisfaction index

What Is Talent Management?

Talent management is a constant process that involves attracting and retaining high-quality employees, developing their skills, and continuously motivating them to improve their performance.

The primary purpose of talent management is to create a motivated workforce who will stay with your company in the long run. The exact way to achieve this will differ from company to company.

The Role of HR in Talent Management

Talent management is an important aspect of broader human capital management (HCM) initiatives. Here's a closer look at specific talent management activities the human resources team should oversee.

Talent management is an important aspect of broader human capital management (HCM) initiatives. HCM encompasses hiring the right people and managing them effectively, developing strong management policies and approaches, and designing integrated underlying systems to gather data needed to make strategic business decisions. Talent management focuses on some specific, critical day-to-day activities overseen by HR teams. Here's a closer look at some of these important activities.

Recruiting

The foundation of talent management is hiring the right people. The best recruiting processes support those efforts by carefully defining job descriptions, using an applicant tracking system to help manage the workflow of the interview process, and carefully interviewing applicants to select the strongest candidates.

Performance Management

Once employees have been hired, it's essential to have the right processes in place to successfully manage them. HR technology and service solutions in areas such as time and attendance can help track productivity and performance. Regular review processes help keep lines of communications open between management and staff, allowing workers to get feedback on what's going well and where they need to improve their performance.

Career Management

Managing your employees' career paths can help increase satisfaction while reducing costly turnover. Building on the information collected during annual reviews, companies can learn more about employees' strengths and interests. With that in mind, it's possible to work with employees on long-term career development plans. Whether you're dealing with someone on the management track or someone interested in being a highly skilled individual contributor, career management is a critical component of talent management and employee satisfaction.

Leadership Development

Have you identified the next generation of leaders within your organization? That's a vital part of the talent management process. Once these high-performance, high-potential individuals have been located, businesses need to consider the best way to retain them over the long-term. Often, this process requires a focus on training, stretch assignments, and mentoring.

Organizational Strategy

Talent management activities rarely happen in isolation. Instead, strategic recruiting and support of workforce development begins with a company-level commitment. Your HR team may play a leading role in making this happen, from identifying talent management as a strategic priority to determining how and where that focus will be applied.

Focusing on talent management is a critical component of your broader workforce management strategy, because recruiting, training, retaining, and promoting the right people are essential steps in reaching your staffing goals. While human capital management initiatives encompass talent management and much more, understanding and executing the day-to-day activities of recruiting, leadership development, strategy creation, and career management are essential for successful HCM.

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Wednesday, November 9, 2022

HRM Unit 1 to 5 Study Material